


lvS^>^ :.,,->-. "'J 













ERRATA. 

The seventh line on page 128 should read : 

For the reduction of ore in Mexico two processes zccrc most in 

The last line on page 128 should read : 

modern machinery and treating large tonnages by the cyanide 
process. 



MEXICO 

A GENERAL SKETCH 

COMPILED BY THE 

PAN AMERICAN UNION 

JOHN BARRETT 

Director General 

FRANCISCO J. YANES 

Assistant Director 




WASHINGTON, D. C. 

JUNE, 1911 



Ih^S^lS 






.^-■?%r % 



^ 






^ 



INTRODUCTION 




HIS Handbook of Mexico has been prepared 
^^Pr~ 1^ to meet the great demand which is made upon 
Iw^^. '^ ■ ill the Pan /Vmerican Union for comprehensive 
and specific data regarding Mexico. It en- 
deavors to give those facts concerning geog- 
raphy, configuration, cHmate, agriculture, min- 
eral and timber resources, history, public in- 
stitutions, army and navy, exports and im- 
ports, railways, posts and telegraphs, finance, political divisions, 
cities, people, and other important features which are desired by 
persons intending to study Mexico, travel within its limits, make 
investments, or engage in export and import trade between it 
and other countries. While every effort is taken to secure ac- 
curacy, the Pan American Union must not be held responsible 
for errors which may have crept in through mistakes appearing 
in the original sources of information. These are believed to be 
very few, but some are necessarily unavoidable in a review of 
this extent and character. The map of Mexico, while not an 
official publication of either the Pan American Union or the 
Mexican Government, and hence not one for which they are 
responsible, is found practical and useful for this work. If per- 
sons seeking knowledge regarding subjects not described in this 
Handbook will communicate with the Pan American Union, it 
will endeavor to supply the desired information. Mexico is so 
large, and is making such progress, that it is manifestly impossi-- 
ble to do justice to every feature of its growth and develop- 
ment, but it is believed that a Handbook of this character will be 
welcomed by all persons interested in that remarkable country. 
The Director General wishes to give credit to Dr. Albert Hale 
and Francisco A. Godoy, of the Pan American Union staff, for 
their efforts in collecting and editing the data for this work. 



Press of Byron S. Adams 
Washington, D. C. 



CONTENTS 



PART I. 
CHAPTER I. • Page. 

General description; Boundaries; 
Configuration; Water systems; 
Mountain systems; Geology; Cli- 
mate; Flora and Fauna; Ethnolo- 
gy and Archeology; History... 7 

CHAPTER II. 

Area and Population; Government; 
Army and Navy 52 

CHAPTER III. 

Public institutions; Colonization. . 68 

CHAPTER IV. 

Products and Resources ; Agricul- 
ture; Timber; Stock raising; 
Mining; Industries 80 

CHAPTER V. 

Finance; Public debt; Revenue and 
Expenditure; Budget; Coinage; 
Banks 159 

CHAPTER VI. 

Commerce; Domestic trade; For- 
eign trade 179 

CHAPTER VII. 

Means of communication; Rail- 
roads; Steamships; Post and 
Telegraph 191 

PART II. 

The Federal Districts^ States 

AND Territories 223 

THE FEDERAL DISTRICT. 

Brief geographical sketch; Area 
and population; Capital city; Re- 
sources; Industries 225 

THE STATES. 

Brief geographical sketch; Area 
and population; Capital cities; 
Resources; Industries; Commu- 
nication. ~ 

Aguascalientes 238 

Campeche 239 

Chiapas 240 

Chihuahua 243 

Coahuila 244 

Colima 246 

DURANGO 248 

Guanajuato 249 

Guerrero 253 

Hidalgo 256 

Jalisco 257 

Mexico 262 

Michoacan 264 

MoRELOS 268 

nuevo i.eon 270 

Oaxaca 271 

PUEBLA 276 

Oueretaro 278 

San Luis Potosi 280 

Sinaloa 284 

SONORA 288 

T.\BASco 290 

Tamaulipas 293 

Tlaxcala 296 

Veracruz 296 

Yucatan 301 

Zacatecas 305 



THE TERRITORIES. 

Brief geographical sketch; Area 
and population; Capital cities; 
Resources; Industries; Commu- 
nication. 

Lower California 307 

Tepic 310 

QuiNTANA Rod 312 



APPENDICES. 



APPENDIX I. 

Tribes and their Present Homes.. 



314 



APPENDIX II. 

Ancient Remains 318 

APPENDIX III. 

List of Viceroys 327 

APPENDIX IV. 

List of Heads of Government since 
Independence 329 

APPENDIX V. 

Alphabetical list of States with 
Post Office Abbreviations, and 
their Area and Population 333 

Elevations of the Capitals of the 
States, Federal District and the 
Territories 334 

APPENDIX VI. 

Complete Constitution . . . 336 

APPENDIX VII. 

Land Law (abridged) 352 

APPENDIX VIII. 

Colonization Law 354 

APPENDIX IX. 

Abstract of the Mining Law 362 

APPENDIX X. 

List of Banks 366 

APPENDIX XL 

Digest of Tariff — Custom regula- 
tions 370 

APPENDIX XII. 

Diplomatic and Consular Offices. 
Mexican Diplomatic Corps 

Abroad; Foreign Diplomatic 

Corps in Mexico 374 

Mexican Consular Officers Abroad. 375 
Foreign Consular Officers in Mex- 
ico 378 

APPENDIX XIII. 

Weights and Measures 382 

APPENDIX XIV. 

Patents and Trade Marks 386 

APPENDIX XV. 

Bibliography 388 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2010 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/mexicogeneralskeOOpana 



MEIXICO 



PART I. 



CHAPTER I. 




General Description. 

HE word Mexico''' is connected with the earhest 
inhabitants of the country. They called them- 
selves Mexicatl, probably derived from the 
name of their war-god, Mexitli. 

New Spain, as this region was called by the 
historians of colonial times, was situated be- 
tween 9° and 40° north latitude, and 80° and 
50° west longitude. Its length was 2,100 miles 
(3,379 kilometers), and its breadth 1,600 miles (2,574 kilome- 
ters). The United Mexican States of to-day lie between 14° 30' 42" 
and 32° 42' latitude north; and 86° 46' 8" and 117° 7' 31" longi- 
tude west from Greenwich. The superficial area is 765,537 
square miles (1,983,259 square kilometers). The northern and 
northeastern boundary of the Republic is the United States ; the 
eastern, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, British Hon- 
duras and Guatemala; the southern, British Honduras, Guate- 
mala and the Pacific Ocean; and the western boundary is the 
Pacific Ocean. Its greatest length is about 1,942 miles (3,126 
kilometers), its greatest width 762 miles (1,226 kilometers). The 
widest part is along its boundary with the United States, and 
the narrowest is at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where the dis- 
tance from ocean to ocean is only 134 miles (216 kilometers). 
The coast hne measures 5,486 miles (8,830 kilometers), as fol- 
lows: Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean seacoast, 1,603 miles 
(2,580 kilometers). Pacific Ocean and Lower California, 3,883 
miles (6,250 kilometers), of which 1,864 miles (3,000 kilome- 
ters) pertain to the latter. 



*The Mexican Government retains the spelling Mexico, with the ac- 
cent; in Spanish publications appearing in other countries, Mejico is pre- 
ferred. The pronunciation in each case is the same, x and ; both having 
the sound of the English h in hew and Hugh. 



MEXICO. 



Boundaries. 



The dividing lines between Mexico and the contiguous coun- 
tries can be described as follows : 

JVith the United States.~The boundary with the United States, 
as fixed by the treaties of February 2, 1848, and December 30, 
1853, begins at the mouth of the Rio Grande on the Gulf of Mex- 
ico and follows the river to El Paso, Texas (parallel 31° 47' 
north). The distance along the axis of the river is 860 miles 
(1,384 kilometers), not counting sinuosities, which are constantly 
changing; the actual length of the channel is about 1,300 miles 
(2,092 kilometers). West of El Paso the distances are as fol- 
lows: Along parallel 31° 47' north latitude, from the Rio Grande 
west, 99 miles (159 kilometers) ;* thence south to parallel 31° 20' 
north latitude, 31 miles (50 kilometers) ; thence west along this 
parallel to the one hundred and eleventh meridian of longitude 
west of Greenwich, 170 miles (274 kilometers) ; thence in a 
straight line to a point on the Colorado River 20 miles (32 kilome- 
ters) below the junction of the Gila River, 235 miles (378 kilome- 
ters) ; thence up the middle of the Colorado River to the inter- 
section with the old line between Upper and Lower California, 
17 miles (27 kilometers) in a straight line; thence to a point 
on the Pacific Ocean distant one marine league south of the 
southernmost point of the Bay of San Diego, 141 miles (227 
kilometers). This makes the total distance from El Paso to the 
Pacific Ocean 693 miles (1,115 kilometers), and from the Gulf 
of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean 1,553 miles (2,499 kilometers) 
if measured on the axis of the Rio Grande alone, or about 1,993 
miles (3,207 kilometers) if the sinuosities of that river are con- 
sidered. 

With Guateniala. — The boundary with the Republic of Guate- 
mala, as fixed by the treaty of September 27, 1882, and the agree- 
ment of April 1, 1895, runs from a point in the Pacific Ocean 
three leagues from the mouth of the Suchiate River, up the 
deepest channel of that river, to the place at which it intersects 
the vertical plane through the highest point of the volcano of 
Tacana, 25 meters (82 feet) from the southernmost garita of 
Talqnian — this last to remain in Guatemalan territory; thence to 
a determined point 4 kilometers (2.48 miles) beyond the Cerro 
de Ixhul; thence eastward along the parallel of latitude through 
that point to the deepest channel of the Chixoy River; thence 
along this channel to the Usumacinta River, along that river to a 
point on the parallel 17' 49', technically described by the treaty, 
and finally eastward to the line of British Honduras. 



*This is actually one mile (1.60 kilometers) shorter than the treaty- 
calls for. 



BOUNDARIES — CONFIGURATION. \f 

With British Honduras. — The boundary with Belice (British 
Honduras) as fixed by the treaty of July 8, 1893, begins in the 
Boca de Bacalar Chica, the Strait separating Yucatan* from the 
Ambergris Key, runs in the center of that channel in a south- 
western direction to parallel 18° 9' north latitude, thence north- 
west * * * to parallel 18° 10' north; thence toward the 
west it continues through the neighboring Bay as far as 88° 2' 
west longitude, then toward the north to parallel 18° 25' north 
latitude; and again to the west to the meridian 88° 18' west 
longitude, following this meridian to north latitude 18° 28^, 
where the mouth of the Rio Hondo is encountered; the deepest 
part of the channel of this river is followed, passing on the 
west the Island of Albion, then ascending the Arroyo Azul to 
* * * a point north of the intersection of the boundary lines 
of Mexico, Guatemala and British Honduras ; from this point 
it runs south as far as 17° 49' north latitude, the boundary line 
between Mexico and Guatemala. The Rio Xnohha (or Snosha) 
remains, therefore, in Mexican territory. 

Cessions of territory. — The Mexican cessions to the United 
States are estimated as follows : 

Square Square 

miles. kilometers 

Annexation of Texas 362,487 938,841 

Guadalupe-Hidalgo treaty (February 2, 1848).. 522,568 1,353.451 

Gadsden treaty (purchase) (December 30, 1853) 45,535 117,936 

Configuration. 

Mexico possesses an interesting- physical formation. Rising- 
rapidly by a succession of terraces from the low sandy coasts on 
the east and west, it culminates in a central plateau running in a 
northwesterly and sontheasterly direction, and having an eleva- 
tion varying from 4,000 to 8,000 feet (1,219 to 2,438 meters) 
above the sea. It is pre-emiently a region of mountain elevations, 
but this is not always to be recognized in the interior on account 
of the development of its broad table-land, whose flat or gently 
undulating surface, rising from the depression of the Rio Grande 
to graduated altitudes, masks the configuration of the land. 
Much of this plateau has been formed through a progressive 
and long-continued accumulation of detrital material, representing 
in part the distributed products resulting from mountain destruc- 
tion, and in greater part the discharges from an almost endless 
number of volcanic openings. These have filled the original 
valleys to the lips, and it is thus upon a new surface that the 



*That portion of the State of Yucatan mentioned in the treaty be- 
came, by the act of December 14, 1900, a Federal Territory under the 
name of Quintana Roc. 



10 MEXICO. 

more recent or existing valleys have been iinp()>e(l. Thus the 
^reat central plateau appears to be merely a tillc<l-up ^series of 
troughs, not wholly unlike the snow-accumulated lahle-land of 
Greenland, through whose margins alone the buried mountains 
protrude their summit peaks. In Mexico, too, especially in the 
loftier parts of the ])lateau, buried mountains rear their summits 
as "islands"' above the enveloping mass; elsewhere they make 
continous ridges or chains, whose crest-lines ma\ be as much 
as 10,000 feet (3,048 meters) above the sea. 

The eastern coast of Mexico, bathed by the Caribbean Sea 
and the Gulf of Mexico, is flat, low and sandy, except in a few 
places where the mountains are so close as to be visible from 
the shore. On the Pacific side, the coast, though generally low, 
is here and there broken by spurs extending from tlie cordilleras 
to the ocean. 

The principal gulfs are those of California, Tehuantepec and 
Mexico, this last being one of the largest in the world. There 
are innumerable bays, the principal ones being Campeche on the 
Gulf of iMexico, and Tehuantepec on the Pacific, on opposite 
sides of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The more important bays 
on the Gulf of California and on the sea coasts of the Republic 
will be mentioned in the description of the individual States. 

Mexico has many islands near the coasts, none of them very 
large and some of them uninhabited, although as a rule they are 
of great fertility and capable of supporting a large population. 
Among the best known are San Juan de Ulua, opposite the port 
of A^eracruz, and Tiburon. off the coast of Sonora. 

Water System. 

Mexico is deficient in large permanent streams, and its rivers 
offer but little opportunity to navigation. The topographical 
conditions of the country are such as to cause the streams, in 
their progress toward the sea, to be continually precipitated in 
the form of cascades, etc., thus rendering navigation difficult but 
greatly facilitating their availability for motive power. The prin- 
cipal rivers are the Rio Grande, 1,500 miles (2,414 kilometers) 
long, which rises in Colorado (United States of North America), 
passes through New Mexico, its waters being used on its way for 
irrigation purposes, and forms, from El Paso to the Atlantic 
Ocean, the boundary line between Mexico and the Ignited States; 
the Rio Lenna (Santiago), which rises in the mountains south- 
west of Toluca, passes through the Lake of Chapala, which k 
leaves under the name of Guadalajara, changing its name again 
to (Tololotlan and Rio Grande are also used) Santiago before 
it empties into the Pacific Ocean near San Bias, having traversed 



12 MEXICO. 

540 miles (869 kilometers) of Mexican territory; about fifteen 
miles (24 kilometers) from the city of Guadalajara the Lerma is 
precipitated over the magnificent fall of Juanacatlan, the Niagara 
of Mexico; the Rio Balsas or Mcscala, 426 miles (685 kilometers) 
long, which rises in the central plateau near the Valley of Mexico, 
passes through the State of Puebla to the southwest, and empties 
into the Pacific at Zacatula in the State of Guerrero; it is navi- 
gable for steamers for a few miles only from its mouth, being in 
places shallow, swift and precipitous, in others wide and deep: 
the Rio Fucrtc and Rio Yaqui, which flow into the Pacific in the 
north of the Republic, but are navigable for small vessels only; 
the Rio Paniico, which rises north of the Valley of Mexico, and 
under the names of Tula and Montesuma describes a vast semi- 
circle toward the west across the State of Hidalgo, receives the 
waters of several tributaries and finally empties into the Gulf of 
Mexico at the port of Tampico ; the Rio Papaloapam, which rises 
in the State of Oaxaca, passes through the State of Veracruz and 
empties into the Gulf of Mexico a few miles below Veracruz ; 
the Rio Coataacoalcos, which forms the harbor of Puerto Mexico, 
and the Rio Grijalva and Rio Usumacinta, the three last being 
navigable for a considerable distance above their mouths. 

The largest lake on Mexican territory is the Chapala Lake, 
measuring about 70 miles (112 kilometers) long by 20 miles (32 
kilometers) wide. Cuitzeo and Patzcuaro in the State of 
Michoacan are extremely picturesque. The Valley of Mexico 
had at one time seven lakes, one fresh and six salt water, but 
the surface they formerly occupied has been much diminished. 
Other lakes and the lagoons (lagunas), insets from the sea or 
bodies of water closely connected with the oceans, will be men- 
tioned in the description of the several States. 

Mountain System. 

Two Cordilleras, or high mountain ranges, traverse Mexico, 
running almost parallel to the coast, one along the Gulf of Mex- 
ico and the other along the Pacific. The former is from 10 to 
100 miles (16 to 160 kilometers) inland, leaving an inclined 
plane between the sea and the foot of the mountains, while the 
latter is near the coast, with only a narrow strip of land between 
the mountains and the sea ; this range has several branches run- 
ning in dififerent directions, the most continuous being the Sierra 
Madre of" the Pacific. Parallel to this last-named range is the 
Sierra de la Giganta in lower California, which slopes abruptly 
toward the east like the Atlantic escarpments. Corresponding 
with the Sierra Madre on the west are the broken eastern eleva- 
tions of the central plateau. 



14 MEXICO. 

The Cordillera of Anahuac, sunnuiiding the valleys of Tenoch- 
titlan and Puehla, is the most important orographically and his- 
torically of the central cross ridges, and it is supposed to culmi- 
nate in Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl. It seems, however, that 
these volcanoes belong to a more recent upheaval, as they are 
nearly at right angles to the main axis of the central plateau, 
south of the line formed by the Orizaba or Citlaltepetl, on the 
coast south of Veracruz, to which correspond, on the west, the 
Jorullo in Michoacan, Colima near the coast in Jalisco, and the 
Revillagigedo group on the Pacific. Nearly parallel to these are 
the sierras of Guerrero, of Oaxaca, and southeast of the Isthmus 
of Tehuantepec those of Chiapas near the frontier of Guatemala. 

Geology. 

"In the higher ranges the prevailing formations are granite, 
which seem also to be the foundations of the plateaus, above 
which rise the traps, basalts, mineral-bearing porphyries and 
more recent lavas. This is the basis of Lyall's theory that Mex- 
ico consisted originally of granite ranges with intervening val- 
leys subsequently filled up to the level of the plateaus by sub- 
terranean eruptions. Igneous rocks of every geologic epoch cer- 
tainly form to a large extent the superstructure of the central 
plateau. But the Mexican table-land seems to consist mainly of 
metamorphic formations partly upheaved, partly inter])ene- 
trated and overlaid by igneous masses of all epochs and which 
are chiefly represented by shales, grit rock, greenstones, silicious 
schists, and especially unfossiliferous limestones. All these for- 
mations are alike remarkable for the abundance and variety of 
their metaliferous ores, such as silver, copper and gold. The 
highest ranges are formed mainly of plutonic and volcanic rocks, 
such as granites, syenites, diorites, mineral-bearing trachytes, 
basalts, porphyries, obsidian, pearlstone, sulphur, pumice. lavas, 
tufa, and other recent volcanic discharges. Obsidian fitzli) was 
the chief material formerly used by the natives in the manufac- 
ture of their cutting implements, as shown by the quarries of the 
Cerro de las Navajas (Knife Cliff), near Real del Monte and 
Pachuca, in the State of Plildalgo. Vast deposits of pumice and 
the purest sulphur are found at Huichapan and in many of the 
volcanic craters. But immeasurably the most valuable rocks are 
the argentiferous porphyries and schists of the central plateau 
and -of Sinaloa, unless they are destined to be rivaled by the 
auriferous deposits of Sonora. Horizontal and stratified rocks, 
of extremely limited extent in the south, are largely developed in 
the northern States, and chalk becomes very prevalent toward 
the Rio Grande and Rio Gila vallevs. To this chalk and to the 



•-d 




16 MEXICO. 

sandstone are probably due the sandy plains which cover vast 
tracks in North Mexico, stretching thence far into New Mexico 
and Texas. 

"None of the horizontal layers seems to be very rich in ores, 
which are mainly found in the metamorphic, Paleozoic and 
hypozene rocks of Durango, Chihuahua and the south. Apart 
from Sinaloa and Sonora, which are now known to contain vast 
stores of the precious metals, nearly all the historic mines lie on 
the south central plateau at elevations of from 5,500 to 9,500 
feet (1,678 to 2,895 meters). A line drawn from the capital to 
Guanajuato, and thence northward to the mining town of Guada- 
lupe y Calvo of Chihuahua, and southward to Oaxaca, thus cut- 
ting the main axis of upheaval at an angle of 45°, will intersect 
probably the richest known argentiferous region in the whole 
world. 

"Of other minerals the most important are copper, found in a 
pure state near the city of Guanajuato, and associated with gold 
in Chihuahua, Sonora, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, and else- 
where ; iron in immense masses in Michoacan and Jalisco and 
in Durango, where the Cerro del Mercado is a solid mountain of 
magnetic iron ore; lead associated with silver, chiefly in Oaxaca; 
tin in Michoacan and Jalisco ; sulphur in many craters ; platinum 
in Hidalgo ; cinnabar in Morelos and Guerrero ; 'steppe salt' in 
the sandy districts of the north ; 'bitter salt' at Tepayac and other 
places ; coal at various points ; bismuth, marble, alabaster, gypsum, 
and rock salt in great abundance throughput the plateaus and 
sierras." 

In the course of time these mountains have become disinte- 
grated by rain and other natural causes, and the filling up of the 
spaces between them has formed a series of valleys rich in agri- 
cultural resources. These valleys, known as the central plateau, 
run for about 150 miles (241 kilometers) east of the City of 
Mexico, in a northwesterly direction. The plateau is so level that 
when there were no wagon roads in Mexico one could travel in 
a carriage from the City of Mexico to Santa Fe. In contrast 
with the plains and the at times barren districts of the plateau, 
the territory is occasionally broken by depressions called 
"barrancas," having in some instances a depth of 1,000 feet (305 
meters) and being several miles in length. These are covered 
with a luxurious growth of trees and shrubs and watered by small 
streams running through the middle of the valley. Among the 
most remarkable are the Barranca de Bertran, on the western 
slope from Guadalajara to Colima, and the MochitUtJ, from 
Guadalajara to Tepic. 

The volcanoes of Mexico are numerous, and they constitute 
the highest relief of the land. The loftiest of these are : Orizaba 
(Citlaltepetl, "Star Mountain") ; Popocatepetl ("Smoking Moun- 




EXPLANATION, 

! I TIERRA CALIENTE (?lot Country). 

I I TIERRA TEMPLADA (Temperate Country 

I'M- 1 TIERRA FRIA iCokl Country). 



extcnil- 

Tllf \ 

(SSO-Sl 



TIERRA CALIENTE. 

. ■ li.it country )je!;ius at the sea level and 

II' 111 :J,000 feet (914 metres). 

II '. 1. Toperature is between 80°-88° Fahrenheit 



TIERRA TEMPLADA. 

The Merm tcmplada) temperate comitry lies between 3,000 feet 
(911 metres) and G,500ieet(l,9Sl metres). „ „ ^ , , .» 

The yearly ayerase temperature Is between 73"-7i Faluenheit 
(32''-2b'' Centigrade). 

TIERRA FRIA. 

The {tierm fria) cold country lies between 6,500 feet (1,9S1 
metres) and 12,500 feet (3,S10 metres), „ „„, , ,. 

The yearly average temperature is between 59°-6-2" Fahrenheit 
(14°-16° Centigrade). 




TIERRA CALIENTE. 



The Uifn-a calicnU) hot i 



practiatlly all the 



iv-inters 



3 colder than further South. 



TIERRA TEMPLADA, 

Till' ilin-f". tcmplada) lempenuc- rouutry lies iu llie innniMisi- 
lihitiMii lit ihn interior. The tomin'ralur.' varies to a grcnlor 
di'Sre.- ivitli till- cliaiiec of nltituflf than with tin' change of lati. 
tude. 

TIERRA FRIA, 

Till' w/i Mil ii'iri rniil iniinir\ li,'^ ill ;i greater elevation than 
liii, ti'iiiv.i I piiiiiiiii Aliliiiiitjii iiiiiil,\ uilliin tJ-opical latitudes, 
it ha- It . I, M riiiiiai,' iiw iii^' in ii- oNUi'iiie altitude. Snow falls 
i)ci'ii>iiiiiiill.\ ill ilii- ii^'iiiit 'hiring ilie wintci- months. Snow 
iil^t, i< -.'..-ii diniii^T i!ii'-i- iiKiiitlis in the northern part of the 
fcimhlic ill still Inw.T uliilu'ii'S. The snow line shown on this 
iier[ietual snow' on the mountains. 



I'liurtisHiatof the 



CLIMATE. 17 

tain") ; Ixtaccihuatl ("Sleeping Woman") ; Nevado de Toluca 
(Xinantecatl) ; Malinche (Matlalcueyatl) ; Cofre de Perote 
(Nauchampatepetl) ; Nevado de Colima and Volcan de Colima; 
Cerro de Apisco; and Tancitaro. The first two of these, both 
resting with one foot on the plateau, might properly be con- 
sidered as dormant cones, since they continue to exhale from 
perfectly preserved craters aqueous and sulphurous vapors; they 
are amongst the most beautifully formed of volcanic mountains. 
Ixtaccihuatl is manifestly a broken-down and dismantled volcano, 
naving to-day the contour of some of the silenced peaks of the 
equatorial Andes, such as Antisana; similar wrecks are the 
Nevado de Toluca (in whose crater is one of the most elevated 
lakes of the globe) and the Cofre de Perote. Colima is the most 
active volcano of the land, its eruptions having been almost un- 
remitting for many years. Its position off the plateau, on the 
Pacific slope, allies it with Jorullo — a mountain of truly Vesuvian 
proportions, made famous by Humboldt's recital of its terrific 
constructive eruption of 1759-1763. Heated columns of air still 
rise from the crater-walls of this forest-clad mountain. The 
snow-line in the region of the higher summits being about 15,000 
feet (3,810 meters), only three of the peaks — Orizaba, Popo- 
catepetl and Ixtaccihuatl — are perpetually snow-clad. Only on 
Ixtaccihuatl does the ice-cap acquire a development sufficient to 
form true glaciers. 

Climate. 

"The odd physical configuration of Mexico gives it many tem- 
peratures and three distinct climates, all, curiously enough, within 
a very few hours' ride of one another. 

"The relaxing tierra caliente (hot country) begins at the sea- 
coast and extends inward and upward to an altitude of about 
3,000 feet (914 meters), with a yearly average temperature of 
80°-88° Fahr. (26°-3r Cent.), and an extreme of 100°-105° Fahr. 
(37°-39° Cent.). The best-known towns lying along this littoral 
are Merida, Campeche, Veracruz, and Tampico, on the Gulf, and 
Guaymas, Masatlan, Manzanillo, Acapulco, and Salina Cruz on 
the Pacific. The winter climate (December-February) of these 
places is admirable — likely early May days in the Central U. S. A. 
— but broken, at intervals, by furious nortes, which lower the 
temperature ten to twenty degrees in a few hours. The summer 
"dog-days" {caniculares) in Veracruz or Guaymas are never so 
liot as those in New York. The cool land breeze which blows 
seaward in the morning and returns at nightfall laden with salted 
ozone and coolness makes life in tropical, white-clad Veracruz, 
for example, far more supportable than in New York. 



18 MEXICO. 

"The ticrra tcmplada (temperate country) lies between 3,000 
and 6,500 feet (914-1,981 meters), with an average all-the-year 
temperature of 7^-77° Fahr. (22°-25° Cent.) ; the variation dur- 
ing a season may not be more than 6° or 8°. The finest of the 
Mexican climates is found between these elevations. The im- 
munity from heavy frosts is as complete .as that from extreme 
humidity, noxious insects, and sudden temperature changes. 
Dryness is the emphatic quality, with freedom in the dry season 
(October- May) from malaria, and a perpetual exemption from 
the keen, cold winds of the higher altitudes and the hygienic defi- 
ciencies of the maritime regions. Semi-tropical products thrive 
side by side with those of the tropics, and there are farms where 
wheat and sugar-cane grow almost within touch of each other. 
Certain of the towns in this favored zone are natural, open-air 
sanitariums, and the warm, still days and cool, sleepful nights are 
tonics which bring many a sufferer (particularly from tubercu- 
losis) back to health. One of these health stations is Guadala- 
jara, with an almost perfect climate, aptly described as "June 
with October touches." Other towns in this land of eternal 
spring, noted for a climate particularly suited to invalids fear- 
some of quick temperature changes, are Orisaha, Oaxaca, Cua- 
iitla, and Cuernavaca. The latter place is one of the most 
favored wanter stations north of the Equator. It is unusually 
free from cold waves (ondas frias) and from brusque climatic 
changes. The gradation of the seasons is so gentle that the trees 
take on their new spring leaves while still green with the verdure 
of the old year. 

"The tierra fria (cold country) — cold only in comparison to the 
heat at the coast — rises above the 6,500 feet (1,981 meters) level 
and extends to snow-line (12,500 feet (3,810 meters) in the 
tropics) ; above this the thermometer often sinks below freezing 
point. The average temperature of the alleged tierra fria is 59°- 
62° Fahr. (14°-16° Cent.), with slight changes, except in winter, 
when a norte may bring a light snowfall to Mexico City and top- 
ple the mercury down to 35° or 40° Fahr. (2°-5° Cent). In Toluca 
and the high mountain towns the thermometer has been known 
to register 20° Fahr. ( — 5° Cent.). The rainfall in this cold 
region is one-fifth as much as that of the temperate zone. In 
the sunny pockets and sheltered valleys of the tierra fria the 
vegetation is often quite luxuriant. 

"Plants will grow on the southern side of a mountain which has 
snow on the opposite side. The sky over all the zones is noted 
for its unrivaled blue, and on any winter day he who seeks the 
sun in the morning will seek the shadows at noon. From the 
elevated mountain peaks one may look down past the temperate 
to the torrid zone ; from the frozen cone of some volcano to the 



CLIMATE. 



19 



warm waters of the Gulf, embracing in one view all that class of 
vegetation which thrives between the Arctic Ocean and the 
Equator. 

"The climate of Mexico City is usually mild, but exhilarating; 
ranging during the year from 35° to 75° Fahr. (2° to 25° Cent.), 
with a mean temperature of 65° Fahr. (17° Cent.). Excepting in 
the winter, its greatest variations are generally between day and 
night on the same day. The tropical heat of the latitude is tem- 
pered by the altitude. Throughout the year the nights are de- 
lightfully cool, and a pair of heavy blankets are always requisite 




Crossing the Tropic of Cancer, Mexico. 

The Tropic of Cancer divides Mexico into two nearly equal geographical 

parts, the north temperate and torrid zone sections. A large 

portion of the hot belt, however, enjoys a very temperate 

climate, due to the high altitudes of the mountains 

and plateaus. 



to comfortable sleep. During the short winter (December- 
February) the temperature is apt to be affected by the northers 
which blow down the Gulf. These monsoons of the western 
hemisphere sometimes precipitate light snowfalls or hail-storms 
in the capital, but the snow vanishes with the first touch of sun- 
shine. Rarely a winter day passes without some sunshine, and 
then one instinctively seeks the shady side of the street. 

"The altitude is unsuitable for snakes, scorpions, and similar 
reptilia. It affects culinary operations, and recipes which 
give good results at sea-level have to be adjusted to suit the 
elevation. Food values decrease by one-third, it is said." 
(Terry's "Mexico.") 

The rainy season in Mexico varies according to altitude and 
; relation to coast lines. As a rule, it may be said to begin in May 
or June and ends in October. 



20 



MEXICO. 



Flora and Fauna. 

This country is the ideal holiday place of the naturalist and the 
student of strange flora. No other country produces such an 
astonishing diversity of tropical and subtropical fruit — the 
orange, the banana, the pineapple, the cocoanut, the pomegranate, 
the guava, the aguacate, the mame, the membrillo, the mango, 
the papaya, the zapote and the anona are among Mexican tropi- 
cal fruits. Its temperate fruits are neither so many nor so good. 
Among general products that grow well are : Sugar-cane, corn, 
beans, peas, wheat, rice, cotton, tobacco, rubber, indigo, cacao, 
coffee, vanilla and agave, from which is obtained the sisal hemp 




Wild Rubbfr Trkk in the State of Tamaulipas. 



FLORA AND FAUNA, 



21 



in Yucatan, the beverage "pulque," and other articles of com- 
merce in other provinces of Mexico. 

The animal kingdom is almost as extensively represented in 
the territory of Mexico as the botanical. There are the large 
feiidffi— the puma, jaguar, and ocelot. Wolves, coyotes, and 
wildcats are numerous in the northern States. A specie of sloth 
inhabits the southern forests, which also contain several varieties 
of monkeys. Among the wild animals are beavers, moles, and 
martens. The armadillo and iguana are very common, and are 
used by some of the natives as food. Venomous serpents and 
noxious insects lurk in the forests of the hot lands. The moun- 
tains and foothills present a veritable paradise to the sportsman- 
deer, hare, rabbits, quail, wild pigeons, partridges, and an mfinite 
variety of birds and ground game abounding. Horses, cattle, 
sheep, goats and pigs are found almost everywhere, and are the 
source of much wealth and industry. 

The birds of Mexico are far famed for their brilliant plumage 
and singing qualities. In the hot lands the birds are more dis- 
tinguished for beauty of plumage than melody of voice, their 
coloring being as varied as that of the flowers ; but in the colder 
belts splendid songsters fill the air with thrilling notes. A list of 
the feathered inhabitants of the country includes almost 400 
species. 

Sperm and grayback whales, seals, and sea lions abound in the 
Western waters of Lower California and in the gulf of that 
name. The waters of both coasts, as well as the rivers and 
mountain streams, teem with a great variety of fish.* Alligators 
are found in the river mouths of both coasts, and turtles of all 
kinds are abundant. Tortoises exist in the waters of Yucatan 
and Lower California, as well as all along the Pacific coast, the 
shell being an important article of export. Near La Paz, in the 
Gulf of California, extensive beds of pearl oysters exist. 

Among insects, those claiming attention are the cochineal 
(Coccus cacti) and the honey bee, because of the excellent ma- 
terials they produce beneficial to industry and to commerce. The 
former insect is cultivated in Oaxaca, living on the prickly-pear 
cactus, and producing a red liquid dye. Winterbotham, one of 
the last century's historians, in his history of America, relates 
that the trade in cochineal by the city of Oaxaca alone in the 
year 1796 amounted to 200,000 crowns in value. 

The bee is to be found all over Mexico, busily producing great 
quantities of honey and wax. 

The silkworm, although comparatively neglected, is said to 
yield an annual profit of $40,000. 

*Since 1891 the Government has devoted much attention to pisci- 
culture. It established fish hatcheries and introduced large quantities of 
carp, trout, and salmon trout. 



22 



MliXICO. 



The country offers a vast and rich field to the naturahst 
and entomologist for the study of the innumerable species of 
culeopter, there being no less than 77,000 of these catalogued. 

Ethnology and Archeology. 

Within the area of the original territory of Mexico there were 
more families of native languages than in all the Western Hem- 
isphere besides; and there were more kinds and grades of cul- 
ture also. The Seri Indians, of Sonora, are as abject as the 
h'uegians. while the Nahuatl and Maya speaking tribes of the 
valley of Mexico and of Yucatan occupied tlie most elevated posi- 
tion for culture in the New World. 

The origin of the Mexican aborigines is involved in that of the 
American Indians, since within the present boundaries of that 
Republic are gathered representatives of every zone, from the 
Apache, an Athapascan, whose principal home is in Alaska, to 
the tribes of Oaxaca and Chiapas, who are the children of a 
torrid clime. There are now in Mexico many times more Indians 
than were ever at any time within the United States domain. In 
early lists of tribal names there are often several titles for the 
same tribe, to wit, their own name, by which they call them- 
selves ; their place name, as we now mark persons by the town 
where they live ; names, often of contempt, by which a tribe is 
designated among its neighbors, besides titles conferred through 
mistakes by ignorant observers.* 

These tribes and their ancestors developed their civilization as 
best they could under the skies and with the natural resources 
of the country. 

In the matter of food, which is the most important considera- 
tion of all, the southern Mexicans were happily situated. Since 
the grade of a people's culture is measured by the amount and 
variety of artificiality in their daily lives, agriculture is a higher 
art than fishing or hunting or herding. How fortunate, then, 
were the Mexicans of old in that their attention was not dis- 
tracted by the presence of large herds of buffalo or immense 
schools of fishes. There was in their dietary enough of meat 
and of fish, but they had the most economic grain in the world — 
maize — in some places yielding three crops a year. Besides, 
Mexican soil is congenial to all sorts of peas and beans, most 
nitrogenous of plant foods ; to cacao ; to the banana, most eco- 
nomic of" fruits, and to a variety of vegetal ^productions not 
known in the temperate zone. There were no plows or agricul- 
tural machinery ; but there was abundance of water supply and 
ample means of utilizing it through irrigation canals. Could 

*For a list of tribes and their present homes, ?ee Appendix, page 314. 



ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. 23 

the ancient regime be restored, an interesting picture would be 
afforded of premechanical thrift. There were farmers in those 
days such as one might see in busy Japan fifty years ago or yet 
in many parts of China, where teeming populations are daily 
fed on ample though not varied fare, the product of human 
hands alone. The miller — generally the woman — ground the 
m^aize on a metate, or slab of lava, with a roller, rather than with 
a pestle, and cooked her cakes and bread on griddles and in the 
hot ashes, not differently from the ways of our own ancestors a 
few generations removed. It was the acme of the hand epoch, 
where there were fewer comforts, perhaps, but less misery. The 
serving of food was, like all other activities, conditioned on the 
social organization. Failing to recognize this, authors have read 
the most refined habits of dining into the rude but hearty feast- 
ing of the Mexican rulers in ante-Columbian times.* 

The next anxiety of a people after appeasing hunger is to 
clothe the body artificially against heat and cold, against rain 
and drought, and against damage from without. The ancient 
Mexican wore sandals, which, because they had no rawhide for 
the soles, were woven or plaited ingeniously from vegetable 
fibers and fastened to the feet differently from the Egyptian 
type now worn. On the feet of gods and of great persons the 
sandals are highly decorated. The limbs were bare. Men wore 
the breech clout and women short kilts or petticoats. The upper 
part of the body was protected by means of a shawl or robe 
fastened on the left shoulder, leaving the right hand free. 
Sleeved garments were not known. The head ordinarily was 
bare. In the wilder tribes men and women dressed scantily in 
garments made of skins. The more advanced tribes substituted 
clothing of bark cloth, like the Hawaiian tapa, of nequen fiber, 
and of cotton. Among the most cultured tribes barbaric splendor 
was the rule in dress. Every part of the body was decked with 
jewelry, feather work, and embroidery. Of the priests and per- 
sons in authority, as one may see from the codices and sculp- 
tures, it may be truly said that Solomon in all his glory was not 
arrayed like one of these. (Bancroft, 1875, 363-377.) 

After clothing comes the habitation. Indeed, a house is a 
suit of clothing or costume for a family, a clan, a royal estab- 
lishment, a religious sect. Morgan (1881) holds that the great 
stone structures of Mexico now in ruins were communal houses, 
built on the models of those belonging to Indian tribes farther 
north. In this' he is combatted by those who look at them after 
studying the religious edifices of the Orient. No doubt these 

*For a gorgeous account of Montezuma's dinner the reader may con- 
sult Bancroft (1895, ii, 174-178), and as an antidote to this, Morgan 
(1881, 237-248), the truth doubtless lying somewhere between. 



24 MEXICO. 

imposing remains are only a small fragment of what they stand 
for. As a stone arrowhead picked up on some field was once 
united to shaft and foreshaft and feathering, and was painted 
with significant markings, so these stone remains are only insig- 
nificant relics of their former selves, while the wooden buildings 
accompanying them, with thatched roofs and plaited sides, 
painted screens, gardens, furniture, and household utensils, are 
all gone. The ancient people lived doubtless very much as the 
native Mexicans do in our day. Making allowance for intru- 
sions by way of Spain from North Africa and Egypt, and by 
way of Manila from the Orient, one may be helped greatly in 
restoring the former times by a study of modern buildings, not 
forgetting that the clan system of living prevailed in Mexico as 
in all other parts of America. 

The tools of the ancient stone workers were chiefly of stone. 
If there were any mason's tools of metal, they were inconsider- 
able. The Mexican lapidaries could chip, saw, bore, and polish 
obsidian, nephrite, and other gem stones, and inlay. They w^ere 
also fond of and skilful in mosaic w^ork, effected by carving 
masks and other objects in w'ood or shell, covering the surface 
with gum and overlaying wdth scraps of green and other colored 
stones. (Oppel, 1896, 4.) Excellent examples of this work 
have been dug from ancient pueblos in Arizona. (Fewkes, 1898, 
pi. 35.) The ancient Mexican stone masons used the pick, the 
bushing hammer, and the abrader, all of stone. They also em- 
ployed wood for skids, levers, wedges, handles to stone tools, 
and for burning lime. To these primitive utensils must be 
added that manual dexterity which comes only through genera- 
tions of practice and emulation. The tools of fellow-craftsmen 
were of the same primitive character, and yet with these they 
also produced astonishing results in wood, shell, gold, silver, and 
copper. 

The Mexican engineer had no helpful beasts of burden, hence 
his countrymen became famous in the use of their backs, an art 
not yet passed away. He had the best of ropes, the inclined 
plane, the lever, the wedge, the parbuckle, and a primitive tackle 
without pulleys. In certain erections a false core was built up 
to sustain the masonry, and removed when all was finished. As 
for his line, plummet, foot rule, square, and numerical standards, 
nothing is known ; only, if his measuring system resembled his 
calendar, he used a decimal scale. 

Among measuring appliances, time measures afford an ex- 
cellent gauge of a people's progress — to mark definite portions of 
time, as with the sandglass ; to tell the time of day, to note the 
proper day, furnish materials for the chronograph, the chronom- 
eter, and the chronologist. 



ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY, 



25 



The more savage tribes of Mexico marked the length of an 
interval by the fading of leaves set up in the path and the width 
of the angle traversed by a shadow. Time of day was not reg- 
istered artificially among the wilder tribes, but in the more cul- 
tured there were devices that operated on the principle of the 
dial. But the calendar of the Nahuatlan, Zapotecan, Totonacan, 
and Mayan families was quite up to that of the conquerors. The 
year consisted of three hundred and sixty-five days, in two parts ; 



^^; 




The Aztec Calendar Stone or Stone of the Sun in the National 
Museum, Mexico City. 



26 MJcxico. 

three hundred and sixty days, divided into eighteen months of 
twenty days each, and five intercalary days. Each day of the 
the month had a proper name and a graphic symbol. The inter- 
pretation of these symbols has taxed the ingenuity of iMexicol- 
ogists from the beginning. (Thomas, 1898; Seler, 1888.) 

In this connection, for rating the culture status of the Mexi- 
cans, must not be overlooked the harnessing of nature's forces 
for work. The Mexicans, originally, did not use the wind for 
power unless it may have been to waft the rudest kind of craft 
and to winnow their harvests. But water was dammed up for 
agriculture and for fish ponds, floating gardens were known, 
canals were dug for irrigation and transportation, and, most won- 
derful of all, in Yucatan were innumerable water caves, where 
the soft, porous limestone, broken up by earthquakes, acted 
like a sieve for the surface waters, which dissolved for them- 
selves subterranean channels. There are no surface springs, but 
the roofs of the underground streams, breaking in, formed cis- 
tern-like pits, with abundance of water at the bottom. These 
are approached by trails and ladders, and they have been im- 
proved artificially. (Holmes, 1895; Mercer, 1897; Thompson, 
1897.) 

The woodman was not in evidence to such degree as he be- 
came on the North Pacific coast, but all tribes knew the plant 
^vorl(l well, and within the limits of the Republic there was a 
great variety of economic species for aliment, drink and medi- 
cines, for woods, for fiber. Timber was cut ' down with stone 
axes, split with wooden wedges, held together with wooden pegs 
and lashings. It was shaped roughly with adzes, and there was 
no lack of tools for creditable wood carving, as the architectural 
features of that substance bear witness, but drums and furni- 
ture were also skilfully carved. The reed lent itself handily to a 
thousand clever arts. 

The textile art was well advanced in Mexico. Its coarsest 
products were the roofs of the dwellings, their ornamental walls 
and screens, and fences. Next came matting of reeds, yucca, 
and palm strips. By varying the plant, the dye, and the pattern, 
the most pleasing efifects w^ere brought about. Articles of dress 
and utensils of housekeeping without number were plaited from 
abundant and varied material. Basketry, through failure of 
tough roots and other material, was not equal to that farther 
north ; but -in place of it skilful fingers reveled in feather work, 
for which nature furnished with lavish hand not only abundant 
fiber for netw^ork, but plumage birds without stint for the 
gaudy covering. 

The Mexican women could spin both with the fingers without 
mechanical help, and by means of spindles, upon the manufac- 



ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. 27 

ture of which much artistic skill was bestowed. They wove just 
as the Pima women of Arizona, their kindred, do even to this 
day, namely, sitting on the ground with warp almost horizontal, 
one end of it fastened to a stationary object, the other to a belt 
around their waists. By swaying their bodies they governed the 
tension. They could do plain weaving, in which the weft of dif- 
ferent colors passes back and forth; they could manage design 
effects by counting warp threads at each excursion of the rude 
shuttle, or they could produce tapestry effects by weaving in the 
patterns separately. On the surface of these, textile lace work 
also was skilfully effected. It is an open question, however,, 
whether the beautiful modern drawn work was of native devel- 
opment or imported from Manila in the sixteenth and seven- 
teenth centuries. Tailoring, also, in the modern sense was un- 
known, garments being made out of the whole piece. 

The question whether Mexican aboriginal culture is original 
or derived has been hotly debated by those who should have 
known that it is both. The problem of native culture is like 
those of the geologist and the chemist. In order to ascribe a 
phenomenon to certain layers or substances, these first exclude 
foreign intrusions. In the same way those arts which were de- 
veloped on the soil of Mexico will be more clearly understood 
by the elimination of intrusions. From the crown of his head 
to the sole of his feet — literally, from headdress to sandal — the 
modern Mexican is Hispano-Egyptian through northern Africa,. 
with an overlapping of the Orient through three hundred years 
of contact with the Philippines. 

There was no potter's wheel ; all vessels were being built up 
by the well-known processes of coiling, modeling, molding, and 
malleating or beating into shape with paddles. The art of cov- 
ering with slip, painting, adding ornaments, and burning were 
well understood, but glazed pottery in ancient Mexico was not 
known. In the South the ware was far more refined in quality 
and ornament, that of the central region being overloaded with 
modeled work. Indeed, in the ware of to-day a school of pot- 
ters, instead of modehng as the sculptor does, molds the parts of 
an intricate piece and then lutes them together. Among ceramic 
treasures are to be noted the musical instruments. 

Gold, silver, copper, and perhaps tin were known to the cul- 
tured provinces. These metals are still found in the Republic 
abundantly, but to reconstruct the workshops of the goldsmith 
or the silversmith is no easy task. Astonishing effects may be 
produced in these metals, cold or in open fire, in the hands of 
clever workmen. Those who on a priori ground assert the 
knowledge of the blowpipe, the bellows, or the knowledge of 
fluxes do not remember how extremely handy many peoples are 
without them. Literature concerning the metallurgists, their 



28 MEXICO. 

shops, their tools, tlieir processes, and their haiuhwurk, is most 
meager. (Pehahel, 1890.) 

In commerce and transportation the apotheosis of human 
backs and hmbs was to be seen in Mexico of old, and in this 
day they compete successfully against beasts of burden and the 
iron horse. Mothers bore their children in their garments, the 
cHmate being too hot for the cradle board of the North. Pas- 
sengers were carried on human backs in frames. Loads were 
packed and held in place both with headbands and breastbands. 
The commonest picture in some of the paintings is of the burden 
bearer, and the artist has not despised the carrying strap as a 
ground for pleasing designs. Runners were common, and re- 
lays, so that messages and perishable goods could be delivered 
quickly. The Mexicans were not skilled on the water. In their 
ahnost harborless and riverless country necessity for elaborate 
\\ater craft did not exist. What little flotation was demanded 
rafts of reed and logs and dugout canoes supplied. In the more 
thriving States organized transportation, centers of distribu- 
tion, and standards of value were established, but the nearest 
approach to money was in the shape of cacao beans, quills filled 
with gold dust, and small sheets of copper stamped with simple 
design. (Bancroft, 1875, 378-399.) 

For the communication and record of ideas the tribes of Mex- 
ico exhibit an interesting progression. The Sonoran branch of 
the Nahuatlan family were in this regard Indians pure and sim- 
ple, with their spoken dialects, gesture speech, telephonic mes- 
sages, painted robes, rock carvings, and symbolism. But the 
Southern families were far beyond that. They had no spelling 
books and printing presses, but they had gotten as far along as 
the rudest hieroglyphs of Egypt and Mesopotamia ; certainly were 
as skilful as the Chinese. They had books much like those of 
Eastern Asia, written on parchment or native paper in narrow 
pages and folded like a Japanese screen, and they engraved their 
thoughts on stone. The literature of the cultured Mexican 
tribes — that is, the artistic writing — has nearly all perished, but 
there was a professional class of scribes, and after the conquest 
they copied for their rulers many old documents and prepared 
new ones, some of which remain unto this day. To the de- 
cipherment of these and of the intricate calendar system able 
scholarship has been devoted, and there is room here merely to 
refer to their researches. (Bancroft, 1875. ii, 508.) Seler says, 
"The supposed differences between Aztec hieroglyphics and 
Maya manuscripts do not exist." (Proc. Rov. Geog. Soc. in 
Science, 1889, xiii, 295.) 

Among these preserved picture writings are a number of suf- 
ficient importance to have absorbed the attention of eminent and 
enthusiastic scholars. They are called "codices," and they have 



30 MEXICO. 

been named from their discoverers, from their present locations, 
and from some historical fact connected with them. (Bancroft, 
1875, ii, 529; 1876, v, 192.) The word codex, or codice, is 
somewhat confusing in this connection, being made to cover also 
old documents in the Spanish language as well as paintings re- 
lating solely to the conquest. Since the appearance of Lord 
Kingsborough's work and others mentioned by Bancroft, the 
Mexican Geographic Society, Due de Loubat, Thomas, and others 
have given to the world entire codices or parts in excellent form. 
Government and institutions have liberally aided. Besides the 
codices there were mural inscriptions, calculiform characters on 
altars, monoliths, cartouches on ornaments, paintings on pottery, 
and glyphs on hard wood. (Starr.) 

The social organization of the aboriginals in Mexico is one of 
the most excellent fields of research on account of the perspec- 
tive which it presents. Here, in this limited area, are to be seen 
every grade and variety of the tribe system. On one extreme is 
the well-known mother rule, where descent is in the female line 
and there is little of private property or privilege ; on the other 
is the picture of a great military confederacy of tribes, wherein 
father-right prevailed, where officers were elective, and a council 
of delegates from each tribe was charged with all affairs of state. 
Into this truly American social order it was easy for the early 
Spanish authors to read their own system and to use such terms 
as king, prince, general, and so on, but to the careful student the 
organization and functioning of society are explicable through a 
wider study of various peoples on the Western Hemisphere. Be- 
sides, there were, as has been pointed out, several linguistic fami- 
lies in Mexico, who were as wide apart as Aryans and Magyars 
in Austria-Hungary; but even these had their agreements and 
treaties according to the plan of democracies. (Bandelier, 1880, 
with rich addition of footnotes.) Confirmatory of the thor- 
oughly American tribal system of government and social order 
in Mexico are the facts relating to the holding of real estate. It 
is not necessary to appeal to the tribes north of the Tropic of 
Cancer; in the more highly cultured tribes, as Bandelier shows 
wnth great erudition (1878), no man owned any real estate, no 
office owned land, all government land was independent of the 
rulers, conquest was never followed by partition of land, the no- 
tion of ownership in fee, of sale, barter, conveyance, or aliena- 
tion was undreamed of. 

The organization of the army was not different essentially 
from that of their civil government. As in the Old World so in 
the New, there were storm centers where clouds of war met and 
spent their fury. The valley of Mexico was one of these ; hence 
the Nahuatlan tribes attained the highest point of military disci- 
pline of the New World. But their weapons were only bows 



ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. 31 

and arrows, darts, throwing-sticks (atlatl), javelins, and spears, 
for piercing; slings and clubs for striking; and the most mur- 
derous club, lined on either side with clips of volcanic glass, for 
slashing. For defense they had shields, cotton armor, and 
wooden helmets, Hke those of the Thlinkit warriors in recent 
times. As is customary among the northern Indians, the Mexi- 
can soldiers decked their military equipments with gorgeous 
featherwork. 

The organization of the army, the tactics, the strategy, the 
military engineering, the fortified places of the more civilized 
tribes, doubtless were of a higher order than the guerrilla meth- 
ods of the United States tribes of two hundred years ago. On 
the other hand, they err who would read into these a vocabulary 
of European war methods of the times. Bandelier says (1877, 
161) : "The Mexicans were not subject to a despotical power, 
but organized after the principles of a barbarous but free military 
democracy." 

In the comparative sense, religion consists in what men think 
of a spirit world and what they do in consequence; the former 
is their creed, the latter their cult or worship. Creed has to do 
chiefly with the personnel and physiography of the spirit world, 
and it will be noted that in some measure that world is the re- 
flection of this. Its supernal beings are organized as a society, 
and their motives as well as their conduct have reference to 
human beings. 

In cult, human society is organized, buildings are erected, cos- 
tumes are worn, food is eaten, days are observed, and certain 
austerities practiced, all with reference to beings unseen to mor- 
tal eyes, but cognizable by a special sense. The most refined 
art and music and the best of everything go to the gods. 

On this definition the Mexican religion had its creed and its 
cult, its heaven and its pantheon, as well as its temples, altars, and 
priesthood ; its mythology and worship. 

The northern or pueblo tribes of Mexico must be studied in 
the light of the pueblo tribes of Arizona, worked out by mem- 
bers of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Its wild tribes lived 
near to their unseen world like their brethren of the north. We 
are here concerned with the religion of the southern families. 
Bancroft (1875, iii) devotes five hundred pages to the religion 
of the Pacific coast tribes ; the larger part is given to the topic 
here considered. On every monument, sculptured slab, decorated 
wall or vase, the spirit world is manifested. It is a Mexican 
Pantheon. The warrior god is supreme ; the priests are ministers 
in a church militant. Sacrifice, incense, pomp in worship, revolt- 
ing rites, prolonged rituals, obtrude themselves and override in- 
dustry and art. 

The esthetic side of Mexican life in aboriginal times covered 



Ol MEXICO. 

a wide area, but nowhere reached an enHghtened stage. There 
were pubHc fetes and games, but there was no drama f^cr sc. 
There were social rules or fine art of behavior — in the open, in 
the family, at the feast, every one had a place ; but behavior 
where there was so little furniture scarcely rose to etiquette. 
There was fine art of dress and its accessories, but not far above 
that of the Mandan Indians. Vocal music was singing in unison, 
and there are those who say that the Mexicans had a scale of 
notes which can be reproduced on an organ with fixed pipes, but 
this is denied. The musical instruments of the Mexicans were 
flageolets and flutes of wood, bone, and pottery. Whistles of 
grotesque shapes, reed instruments of unique form, drums of 
wood (teponaztli), and with heads of membrane (huehuetl), 
rattles (ajacaxtli), and bells (yotl), but the existence of stringed 
instruments is doubtful. In some of the sculptures students see 
representations of this class, but others as clearly witness the 
notched rattle. (Seler, 1898.) 

As for the graphic and glyphic art, sculpture, and architecture, 
the student can not fail to note everywhere the sense of the beau- 
tiful struggling to help symbolism and to discharge itself from 
its more childish forms. Unity, proportion, symmetry are all 
there, and some of the world's standard forms have been reached. 
One well qualified to judge has said: "Most of the motives em- 
ployed in embellishment have their origin in religion ; their use 
was first significant and second esthetic. * * * All the sculp- 
tor's art is crude as compared with civilized art, but it is virile 
and full of promise of higher achievement. * * * There is 
lack of perspective and a mixing up of sizes, and the general 
style of presentation is suggestive of that of the ancient Egyp- 
tians." (Holmes, 1895, 52.) 

No other part of the Western Hemisphere has such abundance 
and variety of attractions for the archeologist as the territory 
of the Republic of Mexico. It is not necessary to maintain that 
the sculptors of southern Mexico were the immediate blood kin- 
dred and colinguists of all these widely scattered tribes, but they 
did use the same alphabet and art motives. The Mexicans were 
mound builders, totem carvers, pueblo designers, fretwork weav- 
ers, and costumers in stone, the material which, more than all 
others combined, evoked the virile qualities of early races. 

The mural remains of the Republic are comprised within nar- 
row limits, extending from the sixteenth to the twenty-second 
parallel, from Soconusco to Quemada. Yet in this contracted 
area are to be found more structures of stone than in all America 
besides. 

Of this architecture there are held to have been several schools. 
Indeed, this should be looked for, since, in addition to the natural 
opportunities opened by the several environments, there were on 



ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. 



33 



this terntory, m rivalry, several linguistic families. In Yucatan 
and Tabasco was the Mayan family, with an outlying branch in 
northern Veracruz. Next to them, westward, were thfzapStec^n 
and the Zoquean family, and in a circle about the City of Mexko 
were Nahuatlan, Totonacan, Otomian, and Tarascan tribes 
Every variety of material enters into the permanent building 




P£ABOOV MUSEUM COLLECTION 

Ruins of Uxmal, State or Yucatan 
Tr.anoulam Arch, West Facabe op the Governor's Palace 



34 MEXICO. 

to wit, the plain dirt heap, the modeled dirt heap or mass; even 
mountains were remodeled; sun-dried clay, either as bricks or in 
larger masses ; stone and clay or other bonding material, mixed in 
rubble, used in vast quantities; walls faced with uncut stone, 
which in some localities was supplied by nature in good form; 
cut stone in walls laid up without adhesive material ; stone walls 
laid in clay, mortar, and cement ; carved architectural features ; 
relief carvings; sculptures in the round. As for the adhesive sub- 
stances, besides clay and other natural cements, lime mortar has 
been mentioned and the possibility of its existence denied, but 
caustic lime was not beyond the jMexican builders, since burnt 
shells occur universally in American pottery. There was no lack 
of durable wood to serve as lintels to doors and to support ceil- 
ings. This material, doubtless, was used for doors, partitions,, 
screens, and interior decorations, and was cut, hewm, and carved 
with great skill. 

The architecture was oversolid, and consisted of rough masses 
of dirt and rude masonry, faced with smoothed cut stone. Lyard 
encountered just this combination in excavating Nineveh. A 
recent investigator calls attention to the lack of the best elements 
of construction. (Holmes, 1895, 27-30.) The arch and the 
dome were unknown. Long pentagonal openings, with horizon- 
tal bases, called false arches, were the best that the architect 
could do. On this overmassive structure there was an equally 
barbaric excess of decoration — false fronts, roof combs, cor- 
nices, mosaic and stucco W'ork. One imposing feature is the 
terrace and stairway presented in endless variety, affording not 
only access to superior structures, but sitting room or grand 
stand for the laity. 

The two central features about which all plazas, paved w-ays,. 
banks of earth, and walls or parapets cluster are the pyramid 
and the squared structure, the mound and the log house made 
in stone. Of the former, the function is largely outside ; of the 
latter, owing to the solidity of the walls, it is only partly inside. 
The pyramid may have additions interior and inferior, but its 
attractive parts are exterior and superior. The built-up and 
squared structure lends all its parts, indeed, to the architect, the 
modeler, and the sculptor, but it also was to be gazed at from 
without. The pyramid was divided into stories by placing a 
series of truncated pyramids one above another and by cutting- 
out terraces from a single form. 

In the most important remains there is such evident relation- 
ship between structure and structure as to prove that one pur- 
pose runs through the whole. And w^hile some great buildings 
give evidence of accretions, others, for example the palace at 
Uxmal and the castillo at Chichen — show that when the build- 
ing began the whole plan, to the minutest detail, had beem 



ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY, 



35 



thought out. \'ery few of the buildings are accurately oriented, 
as that term is commonly understood. Certainly the modern 
style of laying off cities in rectangles was as little known in 
Mexico as among the European contemporaries. 

Their purposes are easily harmonized with the environment, 
the kinship system, and the culture system of the peoples. Some 
of them are forts, to defend whatever was in them. Some of 




(photo by vau'csiay) 



Ruins of Chicken Itza^ State of Yucatan. 
Portal of the Temple of the Tigers Ball Court. 



36 MEXICO. 

llieni were reli^i;i(ius, with their court of the women, court of the 
laity, and the other societies, court of the society and pathway 
of the priests to a kind of shrine or holy of holies, if only on 
some bright, sunny day tlie pageant cuLihl return, wl^at a ])ic- 
turesque sight one of those temple structures would afford, hav- 
ing every terrace and stairway filled with gay costumes, to which 
gold and silver and precious stones, the efflorescence of the 
fields, and the plumage of birds lent their willing service. 

For the first time the sites of archeological remains in Alex- 
ico are here codified in the alphabetic order of States. Such a 
provisional list will serve future investigators as a starting point 
for additions and corrections. A distinction should be made be- 
tween relics and remains. The former are movable and per- 
sonal, and can not always be relied on for locations, but remains 
are stationary and are useful on the spot. They should be 
guarded with the greatest care both by the Government and by 
public spirit against destruction or removal."'' 

History. 

A mist of fable envelops the early history of Mexico. Scien- 
tific investigation and archeology have not yet disclosed the orig- 
inal inhabitants of that country. Ruins and hieroglyphics in 
dift'erent portions of the Republic reveal the story of a series of 
immigration from the north toward the south, but the point from 
which the movement began has not been determined. 

Mexican historians generally agree, founding their theories 
on the interpretations of hieroglyphics and upon the ancient 
ruins, that the country was invaded, after its original settlement, 
by seven families — Sochomilcos, Chalcas, Tepanecos, Tescucans, 
Tlatluicans, Tlascalans, Mexicans or Aztecas, in that orderf suc- 
cessively migrating from the north, all speaking the same lan- 
guage, the Nahuatl or Mexican ; but history does not re- 
veal the starting point of these races nor disclose the mystery of 
the multiplicity of languages of so diverse a character spoken by 
the many tribes that followed them, nor the causes that im- 
pelled them to abandon their former homes. 

It is necessary, however, if one wishes to understand modern 
Mexico, to say a few words about each of the chief Indian 
tribes which, occupying the country in prehistoric times, persist 
to this day with strongly individualized ethnical characteristic. 

'•The List of Ancient Remains is given in the Appendix;, page 318. 

fEchvard Seler ( Gesammte Abhandhingen ziir Amerikanischen 
Sprach-und Alterthumskunde, Zweiter Band, p. 2>2, A. Asched, Berlin, 
1904), gives a more expanded list of tribes related to the Aztecs in their 
entrance into Mexico, viz. : Uexotzinca, Chalca, Xochimilca, Cuitlanaca, 
Malinaica, Chichimeca, Tepaneca, IMatlatzinca. 




f 




MEXICO 



HISTORY. Z7 

The first tribe to establish a settled and fairly civilized polity 
were the Mayas, who founded cities and raised stately temples, 
the ruins of which to this day command the admiration of trav- 
elers and archeologists, in the Peninsula of Yucatan, where 
they are supposed to have arrived from some region in the north, 
during the third century of the Christian Era. Their descend- 
ants in the State of Yucatan at the present time form one of 
the most intelligent groups of the indigenous population of 
Mexico. 

The Otouiies are found occupying in the seventh century an 
extensive region in Central Mexico, coinciding with the present 
States of San Luis Potosi, Guanajuato, Michoacan, Mexico, 
Queretaro. Morelos, Tlaxcala, Puebla, part of Veracruz and 
Hidalgo. Their civilization was of the most primitive descrip- 
tion. Their descendants are numerous to this day in the States 
mentioned, and in the more remote districts the Otomi tongue is 
used by them to the exclusion of Spanish. 

The same territory that had been occupied by the Otomies 
was overrun in the seventh and beginning of the eighth centuries 
by the Toltecs (Toltecas), a much more advanced race than the 
Otomies. The Toltecs established their capital at Tollan, iden- 
tified with the present town of Tula, and to them are attributed 
the structures of which the interesting remains may be exam- 
ined at Teotihuacan and Cholula. 

The annals of the Toltecs have furnished a starting point for 
the history of Mexico. They composed a semi-civilized nation 
inhabiting a country called Huehuetlappallan, toward the north 
of the continent, where they built cities and temples and were 
versed in agriculture, the arts and the computation of time. 
Owing to civil disturbances, the Toltecs, with a number of their 
neighbors, were expelled about the middle of the sixth century 
from their country and began their wanderings southward, 
founding cities on their way. One hundred and more years 
later they reached the site of Tula above mentioned, where 
they laid the foundation of their powerful kingdom. This tribe 
remained here until overthrown by the "lords of Jalisco" (the 
Chichimecas) in 1116, eleven monarchs having reigned. 

There is a notable event in the history of the Toltecs which de- 
serves mention, as it is well authenticated. It is the origin of 
the famous Mexican beverage pulque in the reign of the eighth 
Toltec chief, Tepaucaltzin, in the latter half of the eleventh cen- 
tury. It is narrated that a noble named Papantzin discovered 
the method of extracting the juice of the maguey plant, of 
which pulque is made, and sent some of the fermented liquid to 
his chief by the hand of his daughter, the beautiful Xochitl, 
called the flower of Tollan (Tula). The chief, enamored both 
of the drink and of the maiden, retained the latter a willing 



38 MEXICO. 

prixiiKr. and she became the mother of his son, uhi) afterward 
wielded the scepter. This incident inaugurated tlie troubles of 
the Toltecs. 

After the disposition of the Toltecs, a roving tribe, the 
Chichimccas, occupied the abandoned country. They were in- 
ferior to their predecessors in the arts of life, but were a warlike 
people, who, even after the conquest, gave the Spaniards much 
trouble. 

Other members of the great Xahuatlan family, the original 
seven tribes of which descended from the north, then spread 
themselves over the valley of Mexico, founding cities and erect- 
ing temples and palaces. 

The last tribe to reach the valley was the Aatcc, or Mexican, 
whose annals claim the greatest interest in the history of 
Mexico. This tribe is supposed originally to have come from the 
north of California, according to the historian Clavijero, their 
country being called Aztlan. They reached Tula in 1196, re- 
maining there nine years, and spending eleven in other parts of 
the valley. At the expiration of this time they arrived in 
Zumpango, thirty miles north of their future capital. Here they 
were well received, and the son of the local chief married the 
daughter of one of the newly arrived Mexican families. From 
this marriage sprang the military chiefs of the Alexicans. 

After many wanderings they settled on the marshy islands 
near the western borders of Lake Texcoco, and there, in the 
year 1318, was established the nucleus of the city first called 
Tenochtitlan, derived, according to some authorities, from 
Tenoch, one of their priests and leaders. Other authorities 
claim that the name comes from Teiiuch (prickly-pear cactus). 
as the legend runs that their tutelary gods had signified their 
will that the tribe should select a permanent home, and had 
decreed that they were to fix it on a spot where the chieftains 
should find an eagle perched on a nopal (prickly-pear) devouring 
a serpent. Two of their leaders were commissioned to go forth 
in search of the sign, and they wandered in every direction until, 
on arriving at a spot in the midst of the marshes which then 
covered most of the valley, they witnessed the predicted augury. 
This became the site of the City of Mexico. 

The present name of the city (first called Tenochtitlan, as 
mentioned above) finds its source in the name of the Aztecs' 
god of war Mexitli, also known as Huitzilopochitli. The name 
of the country demonstrates the hold the maguey plant had upon 
the ancient tribes. Mexican traditions, as preserved in the most 
ancient writings, relate that this god was born of a virgin be- 
longing to the noble family of Citli (free and ancestral) ; that 
his cradle was the heart of the maguey plant (mctl), and hence 



40 MEXICO, 

the name of Mccitli, afterwards cliauj^ed into Mtwitli, and 
finally into Mexico. 

Here the Aztecs constituted their first government, which was 
theocratic and military, under Tenoch, who died in 1363. Ten 
kings followed, during the reign of which the Aztecs devoted 
themselves to the arts of peace and built a fine city, connecting 
it with the mainland by four causeways. 

Among the rulers were the first Moctezuma, more properly 
Motecuhzoma, known also by the name of Ilhuicamina, ac- 
counted the greatest of the Aztec sovereigns. He extended the 
sway of his people, and carried their arms as far south as the 
citv of Oaxaca. His grandson, the next king, Axayacatl, who is 
credited with the construction of the great monolith known as 
the Calendar Stone, died in 1841, leaving two sons and one 
daughter. The elder of the sons, Motecuhzoma, or Moctezuma 
H, as he is commonly known, finally ascended the throne. It 
was he who received the first announcement of the appearance 
of the wliite man on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and 
wdiose fate decided the end of the Aztec empire. The last of the 
Aztec monarchs was the nephew of Moctezuma H and son of his 
sister Tilalcapatl. His name was Cuauhtemoc. 

Cortes cast anchor oft' the island of San Juan de Ulua, in 
X'eracruz harbor, the evening of "Holy Thursday, and disem- 
barked on the following day, which was Good Friday, April 
22, 1519 (Old Style*), and in two years, August 13, 1521, had 
captured the City of Mexico and unfurled the flag of Spain 
over the palace of Moctezuma. 

Under the name of New Spain, Mexico was ruled from 1521 
to 1821 by a succession of governors, royal commissioners 
(audiencias), and viceroys,! the last of wdiom, Juan O'Donoju, 
did not assume control. 

During the administration of the first viceroy, Don Antonio de 
Mendoza, who ruled from 1535 to 1550, and exerted himself in 
behalf of the Indians, discoveries were actively prosecuted in the 
north, the first money was coined in Mexico, and the first printing 
press in the New World was introduced (1536). 

The second viceroy, Don Luis de Velasco, also labored for the 
good of the Indians. During his administration the University 
of Mexico w^as formally opened (25 January, 1553, according 
to imperial cedula of 21 September, 1551), and the City of 
Mexico suffered its first inundation since the conquest. 

Don Martin" Enriquez de Almanza was the fourth viceroy, and 
his term is famous for the fact that in it the Inquisition w^as 



*The New Style, or Gregorian calendar was established in 1582. 
According to the Old Style calendar used during Cortes' time, Good 
Friday in the year 1519 fell on April 22. 

fA list of Viceroys is given in the Appendix, page 327. 



42 MEXICO. 

established in Mexico (1571), and the tirst stone of the jjresent 
cathedral was laid (1573). 

Don Luis de Velasco, the eighth viceroy, son of the former 
viceroy of the same name, was a wise ruler who did much to 
protect the Indians and to beautify the capital. He laid out the 
Alameda, and during his second term of office he presided at the 
formal beginning of the great drainage cut (November 28, 
1607, c! tajo dc iwchistongo) by turning the first shovelful of 
earth. 

The ninth viceroy, Don Caspar de Ziiniga y Acevedo, was the 
Count of Monterey. He pushed the exploration in the north 
and along the coast of Cahfornia, the Monterey in California 
and the Monterrey (founded in 1600), the capital of the present 
State of Nuevo Leon, being named after him.* 

In 1606, while the Marquis de Montes Claros, tenth viceroy, 
was active, work was commenced on the aqueduct which, until 
within a comparatively recent time, conveyed the waters of the 
Chapultepec springs to the capital. 

Francisco Fernandez de la Cueva, the twenty-second viceroy 
(1653-1660), had the title of Duque de Alburquerque. In the 
last year of his reign he founded a colony of one hundred fami- 
lies in New Mexico, giving to the city thus formed his titular 
name — now corrupted into Albuquerque. 

The cathedral of the City of Mexico was dedicated in 1667, 
under Don Antonio Sebastian de Toledo, Marquis of Mancera, the 
twenty-fifth viceroy. He had the misfortune; to experience an 
eruption of Popocatepetl, and he took measures to protect the 
Gulf coast against that formidable buccaneer Henry Morgan. 

Don Juan de Acufia, Marquis of Casa Fuerte, the thirty-sixth 
viceroy, 1722 to 1734, was the first Creole to hold office; he 
was a native of Lima, Peru. During his viceroyalty the first 
newspaper in the colony appeared in 1722, La Gaccta de Mexico, 
a small single sheet. This was continued until 1807, and its files 
are exceedingly valuable to the student of Spanish-x\merican 
history. 

The forty-fifth viceroy, Don Antonio de Bucareli y L^rsua, 
was a beneficent ruler, who embellished the capital, laying out 
the drive which still bears his name, and, in reorganizing the 
finances of the country, brought about the coinage in the Mex- 
ican mint of no less a sum than $127,396,0(X). 

Don Bernardo de Galvez, the forty-eighth viceroy, was be- 
loved of the Mexicans, and is regarded as having been one of the 
best of the rulers. Fie cleared the Gulf of Mexico of bucca- 
neers and constructed the palace of Chapultepec. 

*Monterrey, with two rs. is now the official spelling of the Mexican 
citv. 




Pulpit in the Church of San Francisco, State of Tlaxcala. 

This is the first pulpit from which the gospel was preached in America 

(about 1520). 



44 MEXICO. 

The next viceroy, Don Juan de Vicente de Giiemes Pacheco de 
Padilla, second Count of Revillagigedo, is accounted to have been 
the best of the Spanish viceroys. He was a famous reformer 
and corrector of abuses, who cleaned, paved and Hghted the 
principal streets of the City of IMexico, organized an efficient 
police force, protected art and literature, and took active interest 
in popular education. Innumerable anecdotes are told of him, 
and especially of his fondness for going about the city incognito 
to satisfy himself that the officials were discharging their duty 
properly. After him was named the Callc dc Rez'illagigcdo, which 
he transformed from a blind alley ending against a nest of hovels, 
into the fair, wide street, running south from the Alameda as it 
does to-day. During his office, in 1793, the first census of New 
Spain was taken, and the population was declared to be 
4,483,569. 

The College of Mines, which is still standing and yearly grad- 
uating talented men, although the building itself has recently 
been closed, was founded by the fifty-second viceroy, the Marquis 
of Branciforte. Construction was begun in 1797 and finished 
in 1813. 

The unfortunate Licenciado Verdad, who really was the first 
to declare the independence of Mexico, was treacherously put 
to death October 4, 1808, during the term of Don Pedro Gari- 
bay, the fifty-sixth viceroy. After that event Spanish rule grew 
weaker and weaker, and the history of the viceroys becomes 
merged into that of the struggle to throw off the yoke of Spain. 
The last one — the sixty-first — to be appointed, in 1821, did not 
assume control. 

The modern history of Mexico and the commencement of the 
almost continuous internecine wars may be said to date from the 
"grito de Dolores" on the early morning of the 16th of Septem- 
ber, 1810, by the parish priest of Dolores, Don Miguel Hidalgo 
y Costilla, who gathered about him many trusty followers under 
his banner to the cry of : "Long live religion ! Long live our 
Most Holy Mother of Guadalupe ! Long live America, and 
death to bad government !" This cry is what is known as el 
grito de Dolores. 

Several efforts to cause a rebellion against the Spanish author- 
ities had been made since 1798, during the incumbency of the 
forty-fifth viceroy, Miguel Jose de Azanza, but they were all 
suppressed. 

Hidalgo marshaled a considerable force and was victorious 
in several engagements, but he and his lieutenants — Allende, 
Aldama, and Jimenez — were captured and put to death in 1811, 
the first on the 31st of July and the three last-named on June 
26. The bullets that crashed through these patriotic breasts ter- 
minated the first stage of the war for independence. 



46 MEXICO. 

One of the greatest figures in Mexican history then came to 
the front, Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, the parish priest of 
Caracuarol State of Michoacan), who by his audacity and mili- 
tary sagacity was accorded a positon at the head of the leaders 
of the cause of independence. After many notable engagements, 
in which he was almost always victorious, he captured Acapulco 
on April 12, 1813, thus ending his second campaign. On the 14th 
of September, 1813, in the town of Chilpancingo (capital of the 
State of Guerrero), the first Mexican Congress was installed, 
which two months later (November 6th) issued the declaration 
of independence and decreed the emancipation of the slaves. 
The first provisional constitution was adopted October 22, 1814. 

Morelos was eventually overcome by being betrayed by a de- 
serter from his ranks named Carranco, was taken to Mexico, 
tried, and sentenced to be shot. The sentence was carried out 
at San Cristobal Ecatepec (State of Chiapas) on the 22d of 
December, 1815. 

But the cause of independence was still sustained by many 
leaders in different parts of the Republic, among them being 
Francisco Javier Mina, a Spanish officer, who resolved to do 
battle for the independence of Mexico. He disembarked at 
the port of Soto la Marina (State of Tamaulipas) on April 15, 
1817, with 500 men recruited in the United States, and marched 
rapidly into the interior, gaining many victories. He was ap- 
prehended at the ranch called Venadito, three leagues from 
Irapuato (State of Guanajuato), and was shot the 11th of No- 
vember, 1817. Many other patriot chiefs arose to lead the inde- 
pendent movement. Among these was Guerrero, who, after 
many hazardous exploits and brilliant achievements, finally, on 
the 10th of January, 1821, held a conference with Agustin de 
Yturbide, brigadier-general in command of the Royalist forces, 
at Yturbide's request, and the two leaders agreed to proclaim 
independence. The latter proclaimed what is known as "The 
Plan of Iguala," from the town of that name in the State of 
Guerrero, on February 24, 1821. 

Yturbide, then assuming command of the forces, marched on 
Mexico, making Valladolid (now Morelia, Queretaro), and Pue- 
bla capitulate on the way. On reaching Mexico the Viceroy 
Apodaca was deposed July 5, 1821. 

The sixty-first and last viceroy, Juan O'Donojii, arrived at 
Veracruz on the 30th of July, and, upon hearing of the condi- 
tion of afifairs; issued a proclamation and entered into communi- 
cation with the independents. Yturbide went to Cordoba, where 
a conference was held, resulting in the treaty of Cordoba, which, 
with slight modifications, confirmed the plan of Iguala. and the 
date on which Yturbide made his triumphal entry into the cap- 




Facsimile of the Act of Independence of the Mexican Nation. 



48 MEXICO. 

ital, 27th of September, 1821. the Spanish power in Mexico, 
which had lasted three hundred years, closed forever. 

The second Mexican Congress, the tirst after securing inde- 
pendence, met on February 24, 1822, and elected Yturbicle Em- 
peror on the 19th of May of the same year. He was crowned 
and anointed with great pomp and ceremony in the cathedral of 
the capital on the 21st of June following as Agustin I, Emperor 
of Mexico. His reign was short. The people who had been 
warring so long could not settle down to peaceful pursuits. Am- 
bitious leaders thirsted for high places, and the smoke of the 
battle for independence had scarce lifted before General Santa- 
Anna headed a revolutionary movement in Veracruz, proclaimed 
a republican form of government, and compelled Yturbide to 
abdicate and leave the country. He became desirous to revisit 
it, and, returning to Mexico, was arrested immediately upon dis- 
embarking, taken to Padilla (State of Tamaulipas), brought be- 
fore the legislature of Tamaulipas in session there, and by that 
body condemned to death. He was shot July 19, 1824, just five 
days after landing. 

The Federal Republic was established on the ruins of the 
Empire. The third Mexican Congress assembled November 7. 
1823, and proclaimed on October 4, 1824, a republican constitu- 
tion, which was patterned closely upon that of the United 
States. The first President of Mexico, the patriot Gen. Guada- 
lupe Victoria, took the oath of office on October 10th. Congress 
was dissolved December 24, 1824, and the first constitutional 
Congress convened January 1, 1825. During this year England 
and the United States formally recognized Mexico. 

Independence being secured, two parties came into existence — 
the Spanish, which became the Centralists, and the Republicans, 
who became Federalists. To this division is due the constant 
internal disturbances and agitations in Mexico from 1828 to 
1846. 

The two parties succeeded each other in power, mostly 
through revolutions, until 1847, when the w^ar wath the United 
States, which had commenced the year previous, ended, and the 
latter nation acquired more than two-fifths of the Mexican ter- 
ritory. After the declaration of peace between the two coun- 
tries the Mexican Liberal party remained in power (except from 
1853 to 1855, when General Santa-Anna governed as Dictator), 
carrying out its theories of government. In the year 1857 the 
Constitution now in force in Mexico was framed by a constitu- 
tional assembly. 

In 1861 England, Spain, and France formed an alliance to 
declare war against Mexico, but the alliance had been scarcely 
perfected when the tw^o first-named powers withdrew and 
France was left alone in the enterprise. 



50 MEXICO. 

War between France and Mexico lasted from 18u2 until 18()7 
without the French gaining any decided foothold, but possessing 
th.eniselvcs finally of the capital, they established an empire, 
aided by a number of disaffected Mexicans, and placed the 
crown upon Maximilian of Hapsburg, Archduke of Austria. 

The Archduke arrived in the City of Mexico on June 12, 1864, 
accompanied by his wife, Carlota, daughter of Leopold I, King 
of the Belgians. These two unfortunate beings were crowned 
Emperor and Empress of Mexico with great solemnity in the 
cathedral, and ruled a portion of the country until 1867. 

But Mexico refused to submit to Maximilian, who, bereft 
of the aid and protection of the French, intrenched himself in 
Queretaro, where he was made prisoner by the Republicans and 
shot, together with the Imperialist Generals ]Miram6n and Mexia, 
at the Cerro de las Campanas, the 19th of June, 1867. 

Benito Juarez, of Indian birth, and possessed of great ability, 
patriotism, and energy, was the President of the Republic dur- 
ing the turbulent times of the reformation and the war with 
France. He entered the capital victorious on the 15th of July, 
18(^, and retained the Presidency until his death, in 1872, being 
the only Mexican who has died during an occupancy of that 
office. His immediate successor was Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, 
who retained the office until 1876, when he was unseated by the 
revolution of Palo Blanco. Gen. Porfirio Diaz succeeded Lerdo 
de Tejada in May, 1877, and was followded by Gen. Manuel 
Gonzales in 1880. In 1884 General Diaz was elected to a second 
term, and continued at the head of the Government until his 
resignation. May 25, 1911, when a provisional government was 
established under the presidency of Lie. Francisco Leon de ki 
Barra, formerly Ambassador to the L^nited States. 

The heads of the government of Mexico since the securing of 
independence are given in a table in the Appendix, page 329. 




JUAKEZ. 

Benito Juarez, President of Mexico during the French Invasion. 



MEXICO. 



CHAPTER II. 
Area and Population. 

THE area of the Republic of Mexico is 765,537 square miles 
(1,983,259 square kilometers), to which should be added 
the numerous islands along the east and west coasts^ 
some inhabited, some so small or unwatered that they 
ofi'er no opportunity for settlement ; their combined area is esti- 
mated at 1,560 square miles (4,042 kilometers). The size of the 
whole country is, therefore, equal to that portion of the United 
States east of the ^Mississippi River and south of the State of 
New York. 




Area of Mkxico Compared with Part of the United States. 



For administrative purposes the Republic is divided into> 
twenty-seven States, three Territories and a Federal District. A 
convenient classification, regarding the geographical relation of 
the federal elements to each other, adopted also by the Govern- 
ment in its census tables, is the following :* 



*Another List of States, with populations and Post Office Abbre- 
viations, and elevations of capitals, is given in the Appendix, page 333. 



"1910 C F.NSUS 
POPUL^iVriOX 




POPULATION. 



53 



Population 
OF Capitals. 

Central States. Capitals. 1900 1910 

Aguascalientes Aguascalientes 35,052 44,800 

Durango Durango 31,092 34,085 

Guanajuato Guanajuato 41,486 35,147 

Hidal^^o Pachuca 37,487 38,620 

Mexico Toluca 25,940 31,247 

Morelos Cuernavaca 9,584 12,668 

Puebla Puebla 93,521 101,214 

Queretaro Queretaro 33,152 35,011 

San Luis Potosi San Luis Potosi 61,019 82,946 

Tlaxcala Tlaxcala 2,715 2,812 

Zacatecas Zacatecas 32,866 25,905 

Federal District City of Mexico 368,898 470,659 

Northern States. 

Chihuahua Chihuahua 30,405 39,061 

Coahuila Saltillo 23,996 35,063 

Nuevo Leon Monterrey 62,266 81,006 

Sonora Hermosillo 10,613 14,518 

Gulf States. 

Campeche Campeche 17,109 16,864 

Tabasco San Juan Bautista 10,543 12,084 

TamauHpas Ciudad Victoria 10.086 17,861 

Veracruz Jalapa 20,388 24,816 

Yucatan Merida 43,630 61,999 

Territory of Quintana 1 ... | .Santa Cruz | 2,258 

Roo j 1 de Bravo j 

CoHma Colima 20,698 25,148 

Chiapas Tuxla Gutierrez 9,395 10,217 

Guerrero Chilpancingo 7,497 7,848 

JaHsco Guadalajara 101,208 118,799 

Michoacan Morelia 37,278 39,1 16 

Oaxaca Oaxaca 35,049 37,469 

Sinaloa Culiacan 10,380 13,578 

^ ,., . f Ensenada 1,726 2,177 

Territory of Lower California | ^^ p^^ 5,046 5,456 

Territory of Tepic Tepic 15,488 16,805 

The Federal District lies at the southeast of the Valley of 
Mexico, its greatest length measuring 49 kilometers (30^ miles) 

from southeast to north, and its greatest width measuring 40 
kilometers (25 miles) from east to west. This is the most his- 



■54 MEXICO, 

toric spot in the Republic, and was the center of the Aztec as well 
•as of other effective occupations. It is surrounded on all sides 
by the State of Mexico except to the south, where it is bounded 
b> the State of Morelos. This portion of the Republic is under 
immediate jurisdiction of the Federal authorities. 

The Central States include those that are entirely within the 
country, have no seacoast, and have therefore no means of ap- 
proach except over Mexican soil. They occupy almost entirely 
the great central plateau, and cover the area throughout which 
the early Spanish settlements chiefly flourished. The richest 
mines, the largest cities and the structures of most artistic merit 
are located in them. The greater part of the population is con- 
centrated in these States, and, as a rule, the principal agricul- 
tural and productive industries have here reached their highest 
development. 

The Northern States are those bordering on the boundary 
with Texas and Arizona, but with no open seaboard on either 
Atlantic or Pacific Oceans. Sonora is washed by the waters of 
the Gulf of California, but as the southern extremity of the State 
is opposite the tip of the Territory of Lower California, it is all 
^Mexico except along the northern frontier. These States are 
sparsely populated, have few large cities, and are still free for 
increased settlement. They are heavily wooded, mountainous 
for the most part, and the climate is quite temperate. There are 
numerous mines in them, and the pastoral industry is of decided 
importance. 

The Gulf States are those bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. 
They form the eastern littoral, and were the first to be discovered 
by the Spaniards. The climate and products are tropical below 
the line of the tierra templada, but the western part of Vera- 
cruz and Tamaulipas rises into the same altitude as that of the 
Central States. South of these States are immense areas of a low 
altitude, but with a very rich soil, covered to a great extent with 
forests. In Yucatan the henequen fiber plant has been developed 
into one of the important industries of the Republic. 

The Pacific States have an open seaboard on the Pacific Ocean. 
They have a relatively narrow coast line, but with some excel- 
lent harbors, the larger portion of the interior being of the same 
character of soil, climate and production as the Central States. 
Although several of the early settlements were in the Western 
States, yet as a rule they have not many cities. This area is 
naturally very rich, and will undoubtedly partake materially in 
the future development" of the country. 

The three territories, Tepic, Lower California and Quintana 
Roo. are areas of the Republic which, it is thought, can for the 
present be better administered by the federal than by a local 
government. Except Tepic, they are thinly inhabited, the other 



56 MEXICO. 

two not yet being settled enough to admit them to statehood ac- 
cording to the Constitution. 

All the States have a well-protected system of self-government, 
under which local matters are left to the citizens resident therein. 
Their relation to the Federal Government is carefully defined in 
the Constitution. 

The population of the Republic is, according to the census of 
1910, 15.063,207. The center of population falls, therefore, close 
to the city of Mexico. About 50 per cent can neither read nor 
write, but with the remarkable spread of education by the public 
schools throughout the nation, this proportion is rapidly decreas- 
ing. It must be remembered, also, that these analphabets are 
practically all Indians, whom the Government, both State and 
National, has just begun to reach, but it may be hoped that 
the coming generation will see noticeable changes in this respect. 
The Indians enjoy the political and civil rights of Mexicans, while 
special law^s for their protection are features of the Mexican 
code. 

Of the total population about 20 per cent are of the white 
race ; 43 per cent of mixed, and the rest of Indian race. The 
foreign population includes natives of forty or more countries 
and numbers over 100,000, of whom there are 30,000 Ameri- 
cans, 20,000 Spaniards, 5,000 British and 5,000 Germans. 

Government. 

The Constitution* now in force in Mexico; originally promul- 
gated February 5, 1857, and subsequently amended,! declares that 
the Mexican Republic is established under the representative,, 
democratic and federal form of government, composed of States 
free and sovereign in everything relating to their internal admin- 
istration, but united in one single federation in accordance with 
the principles set forth in said Constitution. The Supreme Gov- 
ernment is divided into three co-ordinate branches, viz. : Legisla- 
tive, Executive, and Judicial. 

Legislative Pozvcr. — The legislative power of the nation is 
vested in a general Congress, consisting of two Chambers, the 
Deputies and the Senate. The Chamber of Deputies is composed 
of representatives of the nation elected every two years by the- 
Mexican citizens and in the proportion of one Deputy for every 
60,000 inhabitants, or fraction over 20,000, the term of service 
being two years, a substitute being designated for each Deputy. 

A Deputy must be a Mexican citizen in the full exercise of his 
rights, 25 years of age, a resident of the State or Territory where 
chosen, and must not belong to the ecclesiastical state. 



*The complete Constitution is given in the Appendix, page 336. 
fSee Constitution, Appendix. 



58 iMKXICO. 

The Senate consists of two Senators for each State and also 
two for the Federal District, chosen in the same manner as 
Deputies, and subject to the same limitations as to citizenship, 
residence, and civil status, but the age minimum is 30 years, and 
the term of service four, half the Senate being renewed every 
two years. 

Federal officeholders receiving a salary are ineligible for election 
to either Chamber. Senators and Deputies are elected indi- 
rectly in the first degree and by secret ballot. 

Congress. — The Congress has two ordinary sessions annually 
—the first, which may be extended thirty days, beginning on 
September 16th and ending on December 15th, and the second 
convening on the 1st of April and adjourning on the last day of 
May. 

Executive pozvcr. — The Executive power is lodged in the 
"President of the United Mexican States." 

The President is elected indirectly in the first degree and by 
secret ballot. His term of office is six years, commencing on the 
1st day of December after election. By an amendment to the 
Constitution, under date of December 20, 1890, he may be re- 
elected indefinitely. 

A Vice-President, according to the amendment of May 6, 
1904, is also elected. 

The President must be a native-born Mexican citizen ; 35 years 
of age ; independent of any ecclesiastical order ; a resident of the 
country at the time of election. 

Cabinet. — The President is assisted in the discharge of his 
duties by a Cabinet, consisting of eight Secretaries : 

Secretary of Foreign Relations (Sccretario de Relaciones Ex- 
terior cs) ; 

Secretary of the Interior (Secretario de Gobernacion) ; 

Secretary of Justice {Sccretario de Justicia) ; 

Secretary of Public Instruction and the Fine Arts (Secretario 
de Instniceidn Pnblica y Bellas Artes) ; 

Secretary of Promotion {Secretario de Fomento) ; 

Secretary of Communications and Public Works (Secretario 
de Cornunicaciones y Obras Publicas) ; 

Secretary of Finance (Sccretario de Hacienda, Credito Publico 
y Comer cio) ; 

Secretary of War and Marine (Secretario de Giierra y Ma- 
rina) ; 

Cabinet officers must 'be native-born Mexican citizens, and at 
least 25 years of age. 

Judicial pozver. — The judicial powder is vested in the Supreme 
Court of Justice and the district and circuit tribunals. The 
Supreme Court of Justice is composed of fifteen justices. Their 



60 MEXICO. 

term of office is six years, and they are elected by the people 
indirectly (in first degree), in the same manner as Deputies and 
Senators. The qualifications required are to be learned in the 
law in the judgment of the electors ; to be at least 35 years of 
age, and to be Mexican citizens by birth, in full enjoyment of 
their rights. 

Federal courts have jurisdiction — 

In all cases arising in regard to the compliance with and ap- 
plication of Federal laws, save when such application affects only 
private interests, in which case the ordinary courts of the States, 
Federal District, and Territories shall be competent to assume 
jurisdiction ; in admiralty cases ; in cases to which the Federation 
is a party ; in cases arising between two or more States ; in cases 
arising between a State and one or more citizens of another ; in 
civil or criminal cases arising from treaties concluded with for- 
eign powers, and in cases affecting diplomatic and consular 
agents. 

The Supreme Court of Justice has original jurisdiction in all 
cases arising between two States, and in those wherein the Union 
is a party; it also has power to settle questions arising among 
the Federal courts, between these and the State Courts, or be- 
tween the courts of two States. The Supreme Court is also the 
court of appeals or of last resort in all cases here mentioned. 

The jurisdiction of the Federal courts extends also to all cases 
growing out of (1) laws or acts of any authority infringing on 
individual rights; (2) laws or acts of the Federal authority vio- 
lating or limiting the sovereignty of the States; (3) laws or acts 
of the latter encroaching on the Federal authority. 

States' govcrnnient. — As provided by the Federal Constitution, 
the interior government of the States is republican, representa- 
tive, and popular, and is divided into the same branches as the 
General Government. The legislative power in the large ma- 
jority of the States is vested in a single representative body 
called a congress, the members of which are called deputies, and 
are in most States elected indirectly by the people, serving two 
years. The executive power is lodged in a governor, elected, 
almost without exception, by indirect vote of the people, and 
serving for four years. The judicial power in the greater num- 
ber of States resides in a supreme court of justice and inferior 
courts and judges. 

The States are divided politically, as a rule, into districts gov- 
erned by a jefc politico. The minor divisions are partidos and 
ninnicipalidadcs, the local authority being an Ayiiutainicnto, cor- 
responding to the county, township and town council in the United 
States of America. Each State is bound to deliver, without 



(i- MF.XICO. 

delay, criminals from other States to tlic authority (IcmamHiiy: 
them. 

The States cannot — 

Conclude any alliance, treaty, or leagite with another State or 
foreign powers, except the league which may be formed between 
frontier States for offensive or defensive warfare against sav- 
ages ; issue letters of marque or reprisal ; coin money, issue paper 
money, stamps, or stamped paper; tax the transit of persons or 
goods crossing its territory ; prohibit or tax, either directly or 
indirectly, the entrance or exit to or from its territory of national 
or foreign merchandise ; obstruct the circulation or consumption 
of national or foreign goods by means of imports or taxes ; nor 
can they, without the consent of the Congress of the Union, 
establish tonnage or any other port dues, nor impose burdens or 
duties upon imports or exports ; maintain at any time a standing 
army or ships of war ; make war by themselves on any foreign 
power, save in cases of invasion or danger so imminent as to ad- 
mit of no delay, in which cases they must immediately report to 
the President of the Republic* 

Potuers of the Federation. — It is the exclusive faculty of the 
federation to tax merchandise, imported or exported, or which 
passes in transit through the national territory, likewise to regu- 
late at all times, and even to prohibit, for reasons of policy and 
security, the circitlation wdthin the Republic of all merchandise 
from whatever source ; but the said federation can not establish 
or decree in the District or Federal Territories the taxes and 
laws expressed as regard the States. f The Federal District and 
the Territories are, as in the United States of America, under 
the control and jurisdiction of the Federal Government, although 
the local authorities are elected by the people, as are Deputies 
and Senators to the National Congress. The population neces- 
sary to entitle a Territory to Statehood is 120,000 inhabitants at 
least. 

Army and Navy. 

On September 30, 1909, the military establishment of Mexico 
consisted of 7 generals of division, in active service, 45 generals 
of brigade, 58 brigadier-generals, 753 commanding officers, 2,355 
other officers, and 26,638 privates. The Army has 6,275 horses 
and 3,198 mules. 

In the above numbers the personnel of the Navy, which is 
small, is included. 

The Infantry consis"ts of thirty regiments (in Spanish called 
bataUones, or battalions, the name ''regiment" being used ex- 

*For a complete statement in regard to the relation of the States 
to the Federation, Title V of the Constitution must be consulted. 
tSee Art. ITT. Nos. VI and VII. 



.KR>n' AXD XAVY. 63 

clusively for cavalry and artillery corps) ; a regiment of sappers 
and miners ; four cadres;^ two fixed companies, one stationed in 
the northern and the other in the southern district of Lower Cali- 
fornia ; and an auxiliary force, stationed at Chilpancingo, State of 
Guerrero. 

The Cavalry consists of 14 regiments, four cadres and an 
irregular auxiliary corps stationed at Cholula, State of Puebla. 

There are two regiments of horse artillery, one regiment of 
light artillery, one regiment of mountain artillery, one cadre of 
light artillery and a company of machine guns. The Army also 
has a well-equipped artillery park, a fixed battery at Veracruz, 
and artillery sections at Acapulco, Mazatlan and Tampico. 

The Department of War and Marine has charge of all military 
affairs. The Secretary of War and Marine is the representative 
in the Cabinet. 

For purposes of military administration the Republic is di- 
vided into ten military zones, three commanderies and one Jefa- 
tura de Armas. All are in constant touch with the Department 
of War and Marine. 

The Ministry of War and Marine is divided into nine bureaus 
or sections, each of which has special charge of a given branch 
of military administration. These sections are : Special Staff 
Corps ; Department of Engineers ; Department of Artillery ; De- 
partment of the Navy ; Sanitary and Hospital Service ; Depart- 
ment of Infantry ; Department of Cavalry ; Military Justice, 
Arcliives and Library; Auditing and Administration. 

The militarv zones, with their headquarters, are as follows 
(July, 1909) :" 

Zone. Headquarters. 

First Torin, Sonora. 

Second Chihuahua, Chihuahua. 

Third Monterrey, Nuevo Leon. 

Fourth Guadalajara, Jalisco. 

Fifth San Luis Potosi. San Luis Potosi. 

Sixth Leon, Guanajuato. 

Seventh Puebla, Puebla. 

Eighth Oaxaca, Oaxaca. 

Ninth Juchitan, Oaxaca. 

Tenth Santa Cruz de Bravo, Territory of Quintana Roo. 

The military commanderies are established at Mexico City, 
Veracruz and the port of Acapulco in the State of Guerrero. 

Mexico possesses the following establishments for the manu- 
facture of war material, all of them subject to the \\'ar Depart- 

*A skeleton or nucleus of officers and men, ready to be formed into 
a regiment on due notice. 



64 MKXICO. 

nient: Cicncral arlillcry stores, artillery workshups, an arms 
factory, an artillery foundry, a powder factory, a cartridge fac- 
tory, and a national arsenal. There has recently been opened 
for operation, also, a factory and laboratory for the manufac- 
ture of smokeless powder according to tlie most approved 
methods. 

The educational establishments are the Military Academy at 
Chapultepec, the Academy of "Aspirantes," situated near Tlal- 
pam in the Federal District ; a Naval Academy at Veracruz ; a 
College of Practical Military Surgery ; a Veterinary College ; a 
College of Military Bugle-Calls ; and a school connected with the 
artillery workshops. In addition, there are schools in all the 
barracks for the instruction of the soldiers in the rudiments of 
general knowledge. 

The Military Academy at Chapultepec, which ranks high 
•:among the establishments of its kind throughout the world, has 
(July, 1909) 291 students. The course of its studies for offi- 
cers of infantry, cavalry and tactical artillery, is three years, and 
for officers of the Staff Corps, technical artillery and the Corps 
of Engineers, seven years. In order to accustom the cadets from 
the start to the duties of command and the practical exigencies 
of military Hfe, they are required to take part at certain periods 
of the year in evolutions of infantry, cavalry and artillery in the 
neighborhood of the academy, and during the first half of No- 
vember to live in barracks. During the second half of November 
they join an expeditionary column which proceeds, under orders 
from the War Department, to a given locality and engages in 
regular campaign service and general military maneuvers. 

The Escucla Militar de Aspirantes is a recent creation, having 
been opened on January 1, 1905, by virtue of a law promulgated 
on December 7, 1904. Its special object is to afford a regular 
supply of properly qualified subaltern officers for infantry, cav- 
alry and artillery. In consequence, the course is comparatively 
brief and essentially practical. The college has (July, 1909) 205 
cadets and is giving good results. 

The Naval Academy at Veracruz has (July, 1909) 107 cadets. 

Mexico has not burdened herself with the heavy expense of a 
large modern navy. The few vessels which she possesses are 
destined for purposes of instruction, coast-guard service and 
transport. Those vessels are the transport and gunboat "General 
Guerrero," recently built for the Mexican Government at Bar- 
row-in-Furness, England; the gunboats "Veracruz," "Bravo." 
"Morelos," "Democrata," and "Tampico" ; the transport "Pro- 
greso," and the corvettes "Zaragosa" and "Yucatan," training 
ships. 

The system of military jurisprudence consists of a Supreme 
JMilitary Court composed of 11 justices, a Military Prosecution 



66 



.Mi:.\K(). 



Department, ;iihl niililary tribunals and courts-martial di^trihuted 
tliroughout the country. 

The Rural (Guards {Riiralcs) of the Federation are a body 
specially organized to guard the highroads and to assure per- 
sonal safety to wayfarers and residents throughout the Republic 
outside the centers of population. This force is composed of 12 
regiments, each consisting of 66 officers, superior and petty, and 
152 men. All the regiments of Ritralcs are subject to a chief 
whose title is that of Inspector General of the Force. But 
though the organization of the Rural Guards is strictly military, 
they are not under the jurisdiction of the War Department, but 
under that of the Interior Department. They invariably, how- 
ever, take part in the military parades on the great national holi- 
days, when their horsemanship and typical uniforms attract at- 
tention. Though not belonging to the regular army, they would 
constitute an important element of defense if the occasion should 
arise. The same may be said of the Fitcrcas dc Scquridad (al- 
lied to the Rural Guards) maintained bv the several States. 





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68 MEXICO. 

ClIAPTKk 111. 
Public Institutions. 

Education in Mexico has been for many years the subject of 
serious consideration on the part of the Government. As early 
as 1836, in the history of the Republic, it had been decreed that 
the department boards in the States should establish public 
schools. In 1843 there were 1,310 primary official schools, but 
the organization was neither complete nor systematic. 

Many obstacles have, therefore, presented themselves and have 
been overcome. To-day the country enjoys the benefit of a 
liberal system of education, which is administered under three 
branches — gratuitous, lay and obligatory. Laws have been en- 
acted, normal schools for both sexes have been established, and 
in order still further to extend the benefits to be derived from a 
uniform educational plan throughout the whole country, the 
Government held a national congress of education at which dele- 
gates from the various States assembled. 

The labors of this congress resulted in the grading of educa- 
tional facilities, from primary or children's schools to higher 
classes and special institutions of learning. A general plan of 
study was outlined for all grades, the subjects taught were di- 
vided into annual courses, and there was also provision for the 
unrestricted selection of the latest and most improved methods 
of instruction suitable to each grade. In short, the examination 
and choice of any system, either technical or administrative, which 
might be deemed suitable for education in Mexico, formed the 
purpose for which the congress was convened. 

The Executive at that time laid before Congress the plan of a 
reform of the law of March 21, 1891, placing elementary tuition 
under the care of municipalities and obliging them to establish 
at least one school for each 4,000 inhabitants. This law obtained 
the approval of Congress, and by virtue thereof the municipal 
schools of the Federal District and of the Territories came under 
Federal jurisdiction. This superior board of primary educa- 
tion (Direccion Superior de Instruccion Primaria) was also cre- 
ated for the organization, superintendence and management of 
said institutions. 

The law of December 2, 1867, passed soon after President 
Juarez returned to the capital and his triumph over the interven- 
tion, readjusted the entire scheme of instruction, elementary, 
preparatory and superior. It made elementary instruction com- 
pulsory, it encouraged the States separately to introduce their 
own schools, although private institutions were not disturbed. 



70 MEXICO. 

and iinroducetl rct^jrin-^ even in the professitjiial facultie-^. At 
this same time the famous Library was founded, and the church 
of Saint Augustine (San Agustin) was set apart for it. 

Another law making education compulsory was proniuli^ated 
March li, 1888, but its immediate enforcement was not decreed. 
The first congress of public education was, therefore, convened 
for the purpose of adopting such measures as should tend to 
establish an efficient and uniform system of education. This 
congress met on December 1, 1889, and closed its sessions on 
jMarch 31, 1890, after having passed on, and approved, 124 ques- 
tions, the principal being the establishment of a national system 
of popidar education based on the uniformity of obligatory, 
gratuitous and laical primary education. 

A second congress was convened on December 1, 1890, which 
solved certain problems concerning compulsory elementary edu- 
cation, fixed the methods to be followed in the schools of superior 
primary education, and settled matters pertaining to normal, pre- 
paratory and special schools. As a result of this congress the 
law of March 21, 1891, becoming effective January 17, 1892, was 
enacted, regulating compulsory education in the Federal District 
and the Territories. 

The primary schools previously supported by the Government 
were those which were under the care of the Compania Lancaste- 
riana, which, since 1822, had been working unceasingly for gra- 
tuitous public education. The excellent methods employed by 
this association had become obsolete, and the Government had 
therefore brought them directly under the protection and juris- 
diction of the nation, placing them under the supervision of the 
Department of Justice and Public Instruction (now the Depart- 
ment of Public Instruction and Fine Arts {Sccretaria dc Instruc- 
cion y Bellas Artes)), the Treasury being ordered to take charge 
of all buildings and moneys used in the maintenance of the insti- 
tutions, as they became the property of the Republic. 

On May 19, 1896, the law of public education was promul- 
gated, its salient points being that primary, elementary educa- 
tion in the Federal District and Federal Territories was placed 
under exclusive control of the Executive ; primary superior edu- 
cation was organized as an intermediary educational step between 
elementary and preparatory instruction ; a general board of pri- 
mar}^ education was created, charged to develop and maintain a 
scientific plan. It was also decreed that preparatory education 
should be uniform for all professions, its extent being limited 
to the study of matters, necessary to the development of the 
physical and intellectual faculties and the morals of youth ; it 
being further directed that professional education be reorganized, 
limiting it to technical matters of the profession to which each 
particular school is devoted. By virtue of this law education 



PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 



71 



ceased to be in charge of the Board of Aldermen (Ayuntainiciitos) 
of the various districts or municipahties. 

During the year 1897 laws were passed reorganizing the schools 
of engineering, of jurisprudence, and of medicine. The Na- 
tional ^School of Fine Arts (architecture, painting, sculpture and 
engraving) was also improved during that year. The National 
Conservatory of Music, giving instruction in both music and 
acting was brought up to this standard in 1900. 

On September 13, 1902, the Superior Board of Public Educa- 
tion {Conscjo Superior dc Educacion Piiblica) was inaugurated, 
under the Sub-secretary of Public Instruction. This body has as 
its function the supervision of education throughout the Re- 
public, but directly in its care fall the details of the school system 
in the Federal District and the national Territories. 

The Department of Public Instruction and Fine Arts, the Sec- 
retary of which is a cabinet officer, has charge of the followmg 
matters: primary, normal, preparatory and professional educa- 
tion in the Federal District and Territories ; the Academy of Fine 
Arts; the Conservatory of Music and Declamation; the College 
of Arts and Trades ; the Commercial College, and other institu- 
tions for public instruction that may in future be established in 
the Federal District and Territories ; scientific academies and so- 




Normal School in the City of Saltillo, State of Coahuila. 



72 



MEXICO. 



cieties ; the Xatiunal I'athological Institute and uther national 
institutes of a teaching character ; copyrights ; libraries, museums 
and national antiquities ; archeological and historical monuments ; 
the administration of theaters controlled by the Federal Govern- 
ment, and the encouragement of cultural spectacles ; the en- 
couragement of art and science ; exhibition of works of art, and 
scientific or artistic conferences. 

It is seen from this category tliat the Federal Government 
exercises supervision over a great part of the education of the 
country. Especially is this true of the primary branches. In 
fact, a scheme is published by the Superior Board of Public Edu- 
cation which is to be the guiding program for public instruction 
throughout the Republic. This applies particularly to primary 
(elementary) grades, which are compulsory. 

On the other hand, the individual States exercise considerable 
discretion as to the manner in which such instruction is carried 
out, and are practically independent in their development of the 
higher grades and courses, each State encouraging high schools 
and special schools according to the needs of its own population, 
and devoting to them what funds seem necessary for their 
purpose. 




MiLiT.-\Rv Industrial School in the Citv of San Luis Potosi. 



^ 



Tl 



n 




74 MKXICO. 

The most advanced branches, those that fit students for tech- 
nical or professional careers, are again subject to direct Federal 
control. At one time Mexico conducted a university patterned 
after the classical Eurojjean models as the colonists knew them. 
This Mexican university was founded b}' royal decree of Jan- 
uary 25, 1553, and was followed by another at (juadalajara and by 
one of less importance at Chiapas. It was closed and dissolved 
during the unquiet times of 1862. The faculties teaching law, 
medicine, engineering and artistic branches continued their work, 
however, although organic association between them was lost. 

It has been, nevertheless, the matured intention on the part 
of the Government to re-establish the university on national lines. 
The consummation of this plan was, therefore, reached during 
1910, and one of the impressive ceremonies that took place during 
the centenary celebrations was the opening of the Mexican Uni- 
versity (Universidad Mexicana) on September 22, 1910. No 
complete building had at the time been prepared, and consequently 
the exercises — the President of the Republic, the Cabinet officers 
and invited guests from foreign universities being present — took 
place in the amphitheater of the National Preparatory School 
{Escuela Nacional Prcparatoria). From that date regular 
courses in university branches are to be given by the various 
faculties. 

The general program for primary (compulsory) education em- 
braces morals, civic instruction, the national language, history, 
geography, arithmetic, the principles of physical and natural sci- 
ences, together with drawing, singing, and for girls, sewing, etc. 
For superior primary instruction there are added French, several 
sciences in their principles, and advanced studies in graded work. 
English is also compulsory in many schools in these years. In 
some cases rudimentary education for adults is provided, and 
facilities are extended to the inmates of soldiers' barracks, jails, 
and institutions of correction. 

The total number of schools in the Republic in 1900, and the 
average attendance, are shown in the following table : 

Schools. Total. Attendance. 

Federal and Municipal institutions : 

Primary 9,363 479,785 

Secondarv and preparatory.... 41 5,405 

Professional 60 5,337 

Private institutions : 

Supported by clergy 493^ 

Supported by associations 152 > 117,543 

Private schools 2,068 j 

Totals 12,177 608.070 




Rkading Room of the National Library in Mexico City. 



76 MEXICO. 

In 1*M(> ilic iiuml)c'r nl' ])riiiuir\- >cliii()ls alniic had increased to 
12.000. and the attendance in them to substantially 1.000.000. 

Miisciiiiis. There are throughout the Republic many museums 
of art, science and archeology. As a rule each State has. in the 
capital city, a Miisco del Estado (State Museum), usually lo- 
cated in the Palacio (State Capitol), devoted to State products 
and antiquities. The largest and best museum of the country is 
in the City of Mexico. It is a part of the National Palace, and 
is called the National Museum (Musco Nacional dc Mexico). 
The nucleus of the extensive contents is the notable collection of 
documents on the antiquities of the country, and the collection, 
of inestimable value, of prehistoric Indian sculptures and relics. 

Libraries. The number of libraries in the Republic is increas- 
ing. The Bibliotcca A^acioiial (National Library), in the Citv of 
Mexico, is by far the largest, having about 200,000 volumes. It 
is exceptionally rich in books treating of theology, of the Church 
in New Spain, and of the early history of Mexico. The col- 
lection is housed in the old church of San Agustin, architecturally 
one of the most imposing buildings in the city. Other well- 
known libraries are those in Guadalajara, in Morelia, in Puebla, 
and in Guanajuato. 

Many scientific and literary societies are engaged in active and 
productive work of various kinds in all parts of the Republic. 
Some of them received the support of the Government. Their 
annual publications are adding much to the useful information 
concerning the country. 

Religion. The Constitution expressly provides for the inde- 
pendence of Church and State. For that reason every Church 
is permitted the free exercise of its religious forms, so long as 
there is no interference with Government polity. As might be 
expected from its history, the prevailing religion in Mexico is 
the Roman Catholic, the foundation of which may be said to date 
from 1517, the year of the discovery of Yucatan, by Cordava, a 
rich Cuban merchant. A priest accompanying Cordava macie the 
then heathen temple into a Christian church, and dedicated it 
under the name of Nnestra Senora dc los Remedios (Our Lady 
of Succor), the patron Saint of the Spaniards. The finest edifices 
in the Republic were erected by the Roman Catholics. The 
Mexican Episcopal Church, in reality a part of the general Prot- 
estant Episcopal Church, the Presbyterian Church, the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, the Baptist Church, and several other denomi- 
national as well as unsectarian religious organizations, have been 
established in the Republic, and have active, vigorous fields of 
usefulness. All the Churches foster education and have schools 
conducted in harmony with the Government scheme of public 
instruction. 



PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 



77 



As part of the educational forces of the RepubHc emphasis 
must be given to the numerous charitable and correctional in- 
stitutions, supported to a large extent by the Government, both 
of the Nation and of the Individual States, and also by private 
gifts and foundations. The manifestation of this spirit was 
one of the early incidents of the Spanish conquest, and in every 
.city of colonial times there was either an endowed hospital, 
school, or asylum, for the benefit of Indian as well as of European 
inhabitants. Not a few of these institutions have disappeared 
with changing conditions, but many have preserved their identity 
or have been taken over by the Government. To these should 
be added the hospitals and penitentiaries started within the past 
generation. In this respect Mexico can compare favorably with 
the most progressive nations of America and Europe. Moreover, 




English Church .'\nd School, Pachuca, Mexico. 



/N MEXICO. 

it was the expressed intention of the Government, (hirin;^ the 
centenary celebrations of 1910, to leave, as permanent marks of 
national progress, for the future inhabitants of the Republic, 
bniklings. like schools, hospitals, asylums and houses of correc- 
tion, ct)p.structed on most modern lines, to indicate the advances 
of civili/:ati(_in during the hundred years of independence. 



Colonization. 

The Mexican Government has made little oiificial effort to in- 
duce direct immigration, but the influx of foreigners, although 
slow, is steady and healthful. In 1827, shortly after the Repub- 
lic's recovery from the exhaustion of the war of independence, 
proposals were made to populate the land by liberal offers to 
immigrants, but there was no noticeable result. In 1846 fur- 
ther attempts were olificially made, and also in 1868 and in 1877. 
Colonists or immigrants preferred to enter the country without 
assistance, or to occupy land irrespective of government aid. The 
fact that Mexico has a native population that has for generations 
been active in tilling the soil has undoubtedly made the country 
seem to outsiders less of a virgin territory than other parts of 
America. 

Immigration is therefore left lo itself, and grows as the need 
by those who desire to possess land becomes so developed that 
they wdll go far from their native home to satisfy it, rather than 
by any direct stimulant and encouragement from government aid. 
The attractions of opportunities in Mexico are also left more 
to the commercial enterprise of railways and landowners, than 
to the demand, on the part of the national or State government, 
for permanent settlers from without. The immigrant, with suf- 
ficient capital and patience, has plenty of chance to gain a foot- 
hold and to make a home, if he studies conditions carefully, but 
he must act on his own initiative and can not expect to receive 
extraordinary support from the Government. An examination 
of the land and colonization laws (given in Appendices, pages 
352 and 354) will explain this statement. 

As far as colonies are concerned, the Government has \)yo- 
ceeded further. French, Italian, German, Mormon and IJoer 
colonies have been formed in Mexico, and, on the whole, may 
be said to be doing well. Those who have located in the State 
of \'eracruz, some of wdiich were established over twenty years 
ago, are fairly prosperous ; others in several of the more northern 
States have made a good showing also. In 1903 the Mexican 
Government offered its hospitality to the Boers, and their settle- 
ment in the State of Chihuahua has shown that tliev form the 



PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 



79 



type of immigrant desired in the country. At present, the colony 
idea is energized quite actively by the hope of financial gain on 
the part both of those companies originating a colony and of 
those purchasing land or its equivalent from these companies. 




National Military Training School in Mexico City. 

Cadets, in a race, taking the table jump used as one of the obstacles in 
a military steeplechase. 



80 .Mi;.\ico. 

CIIAI'Tl-.K l\\ 

Products and Resources. 

Agriculture. 

Although Mexico has been famous, from the days of the first 
Spanish invasion, for the enormous production of precious 
metals, yet the agricultural wealth of the country and the natural 
resources of the soil have been of equal value. Even in the time 
of Hidalgo the annual agricultural output was $29,000,000, ex- 
ceeding by $4,000,000 the annual average of the mines. 

So well known was the country for its mineral wealth — the 
silver-producing country par excellence — that foreign students 
of its afTairs have paid less attention to its other resources than 
its possibilities in this respect fairly warrant. It must be acknowl- 
edged that agriculture has not been systematized and that there 
is room for improvement and development, while, owing to in- 
attention to natural supply, there have been occasions when the 
country's production proved insufficient for the needs of its 
inhabitants. The scarcity of cereals is a condition which occurs 
from time to time at the present day, and in order that it may be 
properly met Congress has granted discretionary powers to the 
Executive to reduce the import duties on foreign corn and wheat, 
or to admit them duty free, as temporary measures to neutralize 
the effects of crop shortages, and to defeat the manipulations of 
speculators at the cost of the poorer classes. As means of trans- 
portation increase and the soil becomes more systematically de- 
voted to affording sustenance for its people, such irregularities 
are sure to be overcome. 

With Mexico's great variety of climate it would seem that that 
country offers to each intending settler a valley or a hillside where 
he may be surrounded with just the conditions as to climate 
and scenery which he desires. 

Situated almost entirely within the tropics, the heat natural 
to such latitudes is counteracted in a large part of the country by 
the effects of altitude. 

The area of the Republic, officially estimated, is 1,983,259 
square kilometers (765,537 square miles). Of this, about 400,000 
square kilometers (154,400 square miles) may be described as 
land unfit for cultivation; the remaining area, almost 1,600,000 
square kilometers (617,600 square miles), is divided into forest 
and meadow land, part of the latter being still very well wooded, 
but yet suitable for cattle or, with only slight clearing-, available 
rdso for agriculture. Of the entire area, not more than one- 
fourth has at present been brought under cultivation. Assuming, 
therefore, that about 500,000 square kilometers (193,000 square 
miles) are already in production, there remain 1,000,000 square 



82 



MEXICO. 



kilometers (386.000 square miles), or 247,000.000 acres of land 
in Mexico which will ultimately be used for the benefit of man- 
kind. 

As the article on climate shows, there are three zones, the hot 
country (tierra calicnte), the temperate country {ticrra tcnip- 
lada) and the cold country (tierra fria). The hot lands arc along 
the coasts and are characterized by dense tropical jungles, forests 
containing mahogany and other cabinet woods, and by those cul- 
tures that require a combination of heat and humidity. The 
rainfall is assured. The climate has in general been regarded 
as inimical to the vigor of the European race, but there is no 
reason why this condition should not be overcome, and at the 
present time both medical and sanitary science are bending their 
effort in that direction. 

In the lower lands of the temperate country the character of 
the vegetation is tropical and sub-tropical, and to this region be- 
long most of the typical hot country products, such as cotton, 
rice, sugar, coffee, fruits and tobacco. Portions of the temperate 
country are well off in the matter of annual precipitation, but 
the rainfall is less than in the lands of lower altitude. In the 
higher regions the characteristic crops of a moderate climate 
are cultivated with success, such as Indian corn, wheat and other 
cereals. Some States of the Mexican Union combine both cli- 
mates within their borders, and one can look down from the 
regions of the pine into those of the palm and sugar cane. 

The cold country, so-called, though much of it enjoys a mild 
and equable climate, embraces the great central plateau on which 
Mexico City itself is situated. This is the region of the large 
haciendas, or immense ancestral estates of the Mexican landed 
aristocracy. Their owners cling to them with great tenacity 
and consider it a point of family honor to keep them intact. But 
the fact that in some cases these owners lack the necessary capital 
to cultivate their estates to the full capacity, and to undertake 
irrigation works and other needed improvements, is a condition 
that has militated against the permanent prosperity of agriculture 
in this region. In the cold country all the cereals are preferably, 
and some of them exclusively, cultivated. It is also the home 
of the great plantations of maguey, from which pulque, the drink 
of the masses of the people, is prepared. Droughts are periodical, 
and, when they occur, they cause bad harvests. 

With natural conditions all in their favor, the Mexicans for 
more than two centuries searched for silver and gold, but neglect- 
ed the fields and left the forests untouched, save where the prod- 
ucts were needed for domestic purposes. As long ago as the 
early part of the sixteenth century the far-seeing Bishop Zumar- 
raga said : "The country is rich and very fertile. It contains gold, 
silver, copper — and lands abundantly producing whatever is 
needed. He who would reap must first sow, but if the tilling of 



84 



.Mi-:.\ic(). 



the soil is neglected to engage solely in the working of iniiics ihe 
ruin of the country is certain." 

This prophecy did not come true, but it is only wiihin recent 
years that the productive resources of the land have been appre- 
ciated. It may be said that agriculture, even in the face of recog- 
nizeil progress, is yet in its infancy, and that the soil has been 
cultivated only on a very limited scale. Neither the proportion 
between the area now under cultivation and the arable land, nor 
the methods now in use for the exploitation and preparation of 
certain agricultural products are, in general terms, satisfactory. 

There are two main causes for this state of affairs, both of 
which, however, are being persistently overcome. These are 
lack of laborers, and of means of communication, both restricting 
consumption by placing limits on the variety of production, and 
giving preference to ordinary products over those which are finer 
and more valuable. The mountainous and broken formation of 
the country has always been, and is still to a certain extent, an 
obstacle to rapid and economic transportation of merchandise, 
as it hinders the establishment of permanent currents of traffic 
either by land or water, and deprives the agriculturist of the ad- 
vantages of natural irrigation in certain regions, which are for 
this reason, by nature at least, arid deserts. The farming popu- 
lation, likewise, is conservative, and accepts only hesitatinglv the 
introduction of improved methods of cultivation. 

The Government of Mexico has shown a decided interest in 
improving these conditions, and for years the Department of 
Promotion (Foincnto) has endeavored to disseminate among the 
agricultural classes information tending to educate them in 
scientific methods of cultivation, irrigation, fertilization, drain- 
age, and adaptation of crops to soil and climate. With this object 
in view the Department issues a monthly bulletin with articles 
on agriculture, mining and allied industries, and publishes from 
time to time works on special subjects, to be circulated among 
agriculturists. The results have been favorable, as the culture 
of the grape and other fruits and of forage plants, and the intro- 
duction of the bee and the silkworm, have been greatly stimulated 
thereby. The Department has also imported seeds and plants, 
and has encouraged agricultural fairs and expositions. 

The cork tree, special kinds of flax, seeds of the mulberry tree 
for silk worms, and of foreign varieties of native plants, have 
been introduced. Research and investigation has been given 
to various industries, such as sugar cane, coffee, cotton and cer- 
tain leguminous plants, and the State as well as national agricul- 
tural institutes are constantly aiding the farming community 
about them. 

The Federal Congress passed a bill, in 1907, placing the Na- 
tional College of Agriculture (and \''eterinary Surgery) under 
the jurisdiction of the Department of Promotion (Fomc}ito\ 



IRRIGATION. °^ 



authorizing the Executive to acquire a farm m the neighborhood 
of the Capital for the purposes of the College, and providing for 
the establishment of Experimental Stations and Regional Schools 
of Agriculture at various points in the Republic, m connection 
with a Central Experiment Station to be conducted under the 
auspices of this National College. , . . . 

Further encouragement to agriculture and irrigation was in- 
tended in the law of June 17, 1908. which authorized the founda- 
tion of a bank that could issue loans designed to promote agricul- 
tural and irrigational undertakings. (Caja de Prestamos para 
Ohras de Irngacidn v Fomento de Agncultura.) This bank was 
incorporated September 3, 1908. and is now carrying out the 
purpose for which the concession was granted. 

On December 25, 1909, the -Diario OHeial" pubhshedthe text 
of the law the object of which was to create National Agricultural 
Chambers. These are to interest themselves m agriculture stock 
raising' forestrv and derivative industries. The law authorizes 
IL the establishment of such chambers in the Federal District 
and in each of the States and Territories and even more than one 
mav be established, if the Department of Promotion {Fomento) 
thinks that the agricultural interests or importance of a particular 

^'DuiS^gre'same session Congress, in 1909, passed a law estab- 
lishing an Agricultural Bureau in the Department of Promotion 
(Fomento). The Bureau is divided_ into five sections :(1) in- 
struction in Agriculture; (2) Agnc.dtura ^^^i^f "^^^- J;2l 
Rural Economv and Statistics; (4) Forestry . (^^) Biological 
Exploration. It came into existence on July l,.!-'^^- 

The preservation of the national forests, their replanting and 
methodical exploitation, have been matters of i^^^^^^^^^. ^^^/.^J^^^" 
tigation on the part of the Department of Promotion (Fouunto). 
as the indiscriminate felling of trees atall seasons was gradually 
destroving the forests; this being especially the case since the ad- 
vent of the railroads and the increased number of mdustnal es- 
tablishments using timber instead of iron as constructive material, 
In^ w^d ms'ad^of coal as fuel, the latter combustible not being 
obtainable at a fair price in sufficient quantities. A law has bee^^^ 
enacted on this subject, the regulations stating m detail the duties 
of the officers appointed bv the Government to the care of the 
?orests; the rules and principles to which the exploitation of the 
fore ts 'and their products are subjected; the rules to be folWd 
in making contracts and in cutting trees, and also creating a 
reservation of national lands for forestry. Alreadv arge areas 
have been set aside in the States of Chihuahua and Chiapas, and 
the Government purposes to continue this policy. 

\™ the sam? object of fostering the agricultural interests 
of the countrv. agricultural expositions have been successfully 
held and prizes have been awarded for cattle, implements, ma- 



86 MEXICO, 

chinery ami held products in general, such as Howers and fruits. 
During- these fairs lectures are given on topics of interest relat- 
ing to many important subjects, 

A vital problem to be solved affecting the development of agri- 
culture in the country is the lack of proper irrigation, as Mexico, 
owing to its topography, has no natural irrigation. The Govern- 
ment, realizing that a matter of such necessity could not be left to 
private initiative, framed a law (June 5, 1888) authorizing the 
Executive to grant concessions either to individuals or to com- 
panies for the use of the waters of the Republic for irrigation 
purposes or as motive power. The privileges granted in these 
concessions are : 

(1) Exemption for five years from all Federal taxes, the stamp 
tax excepted, on all moneys invested in the survey, construction 
and repairs of the works mentioned in the concession. 

(2) The introduction free of import duties for the first time 
only, of the machinery, scientific instruments and necessary ap- 
paratus for the survey, construction and exploitation of said 
works. 

(3) The right to occupy gratuitously the public and national 
lands for the passage of canals and for the construction of dams 
or dikes and reservoirs. 

(4) The right to expropriate for public utility any lands be- 
longing to private parties, indemnification being previously made 
on the same basis as that governing railroad concessions. 

The concessionaires are imder the following obligations : 

(1) To make a deposit or surety in bonds of the public debt. 

(2) To submit for the approval of the Department of Promo- 
tion (f omenta) the plans, outlines and reports describing the 
work. 

(3) To respect the rights of third parties, submitting any 
differences to the action of the courts, and to admit and defray 
the expenses of any inspecting engineer appointed by the Ex- 
ecutive. 

The law authorizes the Executive to grant free entry into the 
country of the machinery and apparatus necessary to the employ 
of the waters, either for agricultural or industrial purposes, if 
the concession has been granted by a State, provided the com- 
panies give securities for the performance of the work in accord- 
ance with the rules and limitations established by the Federal 
Executive. This law has been somewhat modified by others of 
more recent date, but the essential features remain unchanged. 

In regard to still more advanced plans, the Department of Pro- 
motion (Fomcnto) sent to the Chamber of Deputies on Decem- 
ber 4, 1909, a bill dealing with the question of water-rights. In 
it a definition was given of the waters subject to Federal juris- 
diction, which are thus defined: (1) territorial waters of the sea: 



IRRIGATION. 87 

(2) the waters of estuaries, lakes and lagoons communicating 
with the sea or with rivers or creeks subject to Federal jurisdic- 
tion; (3) waters of navigable rivers and estuaries; (4) waters 
of rivers and creeks whose beds form boundaries with neighbor- 
ing nations ; (5) waters belonging to the watersheds of rivers and 
creeks mentioned in the foregoing section; (6) waters of rivers, 
creeks, lakes and lagoons, though they be not navigable, whose 
beds wholly or partly lie on the dividing line between States, or 
Territories, or the Federal District; (7) waters as in (6), though 
they be not navigable, of which the beds are situated in two or 
more States, States and Territories or States and Federal Dis- 
trict; (8) waters flowing directly or indirectly into rivers, etc., 
subject to Federal jurisdiction; (9) waters situated in the Fed- 
eral District or Federal Territories; (10) waters of canals dug 
by the Federal Government. All these waters are of public 
domain and inalienable, and the right to use them will be granted 
only when existing navigation is not prevented. Riparian pro- 
prietors are given preference in the use of such waters, but others 
are not excluded. Further safeguards are thrown around the 
utilization of all such waters either for irrigation or for water 
power, and a time limit is set against any monopoly in perpetuity. 
This bill was considered during the Congress of 1910. Its chief 
purpose is to specify with exactness the waters over which the 
Federal authority has jurisdiction, and to pave the way for uni- 
form and extensive systems of national irrigation. 

With this end in view, the Government has given publicity to 
a project depending upon the nationalization of all these waters. 
For the prosecution of the plan to improve the agricultural con- 
ditions of the country, the Department of Promotion (Foment o) 
will divide the country into ten zones, which will be systematic- 
ally studied, with a general purpose of examining into their agri- 
cultural possibilities, and a particular purpose of reporting on 
how these may be increased by scientific irrigation. This does 
not exclude private initiative nor establish government monopoly, 
but in many cases where larger resources are necessary, the 
government will then stand ready to undertake improvements that 
might otherwise be too long delayed. 

The Mexican Government has recently appointed a commission 
of engineers, under the supervision of the Department of Promo- 
tion, for the purpose of surveying, mapping and classifying all 
public lands that come under federal jurisdiction; and at the same 
time to rectify former surveys and grants which are now in dis- 
pute. This commission will also intervene in the surveys, and 
reports of public land denouncements. 

The work has already begun in the State of Chihuahua, and 
will be carried therefrom to other sections of the northern part of 
the Republic. 



CORN. 



89 



Agricultural statistics are at present incomplete, and it often 
results, therefore, that the figures given fall short of the actual 
production of the true output of a given crop. When products 
are shipped abroad, the quantities or values, as returned by the 
tax offices or by the custom houses through which they are ex- 
ported, are known with greater accuracy. The Government has, 
on this account, prepared a series of tables in blank form which 
are to be filled out by landed proprietors and all others interested 
in agricultural progress. These forms cover information on the 
cost'of crops, the amount of land devoted to them by owners or 
renters, and quantity produced, with relation to every article of 
the farm. It is hoped that by this means valuable and exact 
statistics will soon be available. 

The following statements are, however, trustworthy in all es- 
sential details. 

Indian Corn. — This furnishes one of the chief articles of food — 
the tortilla — of the common people of Mexico. It is cultivated 
in all the States of the Republic, but the States of Jalisco, Vera- 
cruz, Guanajuato, Puebla, Mexico and Oaxaca are as a rule the 
greatest producers. 

I'he soil and climate are in general favorable to the cultivation 
of this cereal, and Mexico ought to be absolutely self-sustaining 
in her production of corn ; but owing to the lack of adequate irri- 
gation facilities, the crop, in years of drought, is insufficient for 
the local demand and corn has to be imported from the United 
States to meet the needs of the people. 

Yet in average years the value of Mexico's corn crop exceeds 
that of any other natural product, not excluding the precious 
metals, if each be considered singlv. The production in 1900 was 
estimated at almost 32,500,000 hectoliters (about 92,000,000 
bushels). Some years it runs higher than this, others lower, but 
the crop is gradually increasing in proportion to the needs of 
the people, although more scientific agriculture will undoubtedly 
place Mexico among the great corn producers of x\merica. It 
must be noticed that in many sections of the country two crops 
a vear are planted. Both climate and soil are favorable to this 
method, and the inhabitants profit by it. 

Indian corn, or maize (mais), is the indigenous grain of Amer- 
ica. The Indians of both continents knew it and subsisted largely 
upon it before the discovery by Columbus. Ethnology and philol- 
ogv agree that the original habitat of the plant was in the south- 
ern section of Mexico, somewhat north of the Isthmus of Tehuan- 
tepec. Over this area the Maya Indians lived and from them 
the cultivation of maize seems to have spread. Curiously enough, 
however, the word mais is not from Mayan speech, but has been 
adopted almost universally from an Arawak source, and Colum- 
bus heard it from the Caribs, the first Indians he met when he 
landed. 



^^0 MEXICO. 

Wheat. — The bajio, or so-called lowlands of the State of Guan- 
ajuato, of the valley of San Martin and the country contiguous 
to Atlixco in the State of Puebla, and the Toluca valley in the 
State of ^loxico, arc famous wheat-producing- regions. 

Although natural conditions are not so favorable in ?^lexico 
for wheat as for corn, the former is. nevertheless, a staple crop 
and is grown to some extent in nearly all the States, but particu- 
larly Guanajuato, Puebla, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Michoacan, Son- 
era, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, and San Luis Potosi. 

The crop is subject to great vicissitudes, chiefly owing to the 
uncertainty of the rainfall on the tableland and the lack of irri- 
gation, and after bad harvests it becomes necessary to import the 
cereal from the United States. 

There are 200 flour mills in the Republic, w ith capacities run- 
ning from 10 to 100 barrels a day, serving their local customers. 

Wheat was introduced into Mexico at the time of the conquest, 
as some of the grain happened to be among the stores of Cortes. 
It was for some time the only European cereal raised in Mexico, 
and although climatic conditions were propitious, the lack of 
moisture, which could be overcome only by irrigation, would fre- 
quently hinder its cultivation. Notwithstanding this drawback, 
the yield exceeded the average returns obtained in Euorpe, being, 
in some instances, as high as seventy fold. One variety cultivated 
in the neighborhood of Puebla, and called frigo blanqnillo, was 
remarkable for its abundant yield. In 1677 its cultivation was 
forbidden by a decree of the viceroy and audiencia as injurious 
to health, but it was resumed in 1692. 

Transportation offered by the railroads has given decided im- 
petus to the raising of this grain, and Mexico is becoming a 
wheat-growing country. The area best adapted to its cultivation 
lies on the great plateau at an elevation of 6,000 to 9,000 feet 
(1,828 to 2,743 meters), and comprises some 52,000 square miles 
(134,580 square kilometers), over one-third of which could be 
planted in wheat without serious detriment to the other agri- 
cultural interests. 

The Mexican plan of cultivation makes it possible to take off 
the land three crops every year — one crop of wheat and two of 
corn. The average yield of wheat per acre is about 20 bushels 
(7.04 hectoliters), and of corn about 50 bushels (17.61 hecto- 
liters) on irrigated soils, and about 30 bushels (10.57 hectoliters) 
on dry land. Were this wheat area cultivated to its fullest capac- 
ity, the wheat and corn yield of one-third of the 52,000 square 
miles (134.580 square kilometers) would be of wheat over 
111.000.000 bushefs (39,115,600 hectohters), and of corn over 
400,000.000 bushels (140,957,130 hectoliters), according to con- 
servative estimates. Tliis immense supplv would be available for 



BARLEY .\ND RICE. 



9L 



foreign markets, as the home consumption would always be ob- 
tained from lands in the Republic outside of the above-mentioned 
area. Improved machinery and systematic treatment of the soil 
are increasing the yield, but full crops have not yet been produced 
nor has all the available region been by any means utilized. 

In Mexico wheat is grown entirely on the tablelands and in 
places where irrigation is possible. The problem of irrigation is 
therefore intimately connected with the future wheat production 
of the country. Mexican wheat is small and hard, and when 
properly milled makes good flour. The supply of wheat flour is 
far below the demand, so that, as in the case of maize, the duty 
may at times, in the discretion of the Executive, be remitted so 
that it can be imported and given to the consumer at a reasonable 
price. The demand has increased considerably in recent years, 
so that even small farmers are planting wheat instead of maize 
in many places. 

Barley. — The territory in which barley is grown in moderate 
quantities is approximately hmited to a triangle whose apex is 
situated in the northern part of the Sta,te of Coahuila, the base 
being formed by the parallel of 18° 30' north latitude from the 
Gulf coast to its point of intersection with the Pacific coast. But 
the richest and most prolific area is enclosed within a circle em- 
bracing the greater part of the States of Hidalgo, Tlaxcala,. 
Puebla, and the Federal District, and whose center is equidistant 
from the cities of Mexico, Tlaxcala and Pachuca. From this 
circle the State of Morelos and a small part of Guerrero must be 
excluded, for here the production is inferior. 

Rtcc. — Rice has been cultivated with a fair measure of success. 
There are two great centers of production, the States of Colima 
and Guerrero, while a third important area is in the municipalities 
of Teapa and Jalpa, in the State of Tabasco. These three centers 
are situated near the parallels of 18° and 19° north latitude. To 
the east of them the production gradually falls ofif, and the zones 
in the States of Michoacan, Puebla and the rest of Tabasco are of 
less importance. 

The production of the principal grains of Mexico are, accord- 
ing to the Anuario Estadistico for 1906, the latest complete gov- 
ernment publication on the subject, as follows: 
Rice — 31,720,785 kilograms (1,165,000 bushels of 65 pounds), 

4,125,420 pesos. 
Barlev— 2,683,368 hectoliters (7,594,000 Winchester bushels), 

7,353,212 pesos. 
Corn— 38,786,781 hectoliters (109,767,000 Winchester bushels), 

120,999,789 pesos. 
Wheat— 350,051,473 kilograms (12,877,000 Winchester bushels), 
31,968,457 pesos. 



92 



MEXICO. 



The frijol/-' or jMexican bean, is, with the tortilla, the staple 
article of food of the masses of the peoi)le. It is palatable and 
nutritious, its value in this respect being high. It is a leguminous 
plant of the order of phascoli {vulgaris), and is found all over 
the world. Tradition ascribes its origin to America, although 
this is denied by certain scholars ; yet it is admitted that in pre- 
historic tombs of the Incas beans have been found which pro- 
duce the same seed as the modern frijol. 

The frijol is grown in every State of the Republic. l)ut the 
production of Jalisco and Veracruz leads, with an annual value 
of about 15,000,000 pesos, but the product is consumed almost 
altogether within the country. The export amounts to only 
550.000 pesos, the greater portion of which goes to Cuba. 

Garbanzos are the larger, white and round beans, appearing 
regularly at all meals on the table of the Spanish. They are 
grown in many ]\Iexican States, but those in the low-lying tropics, 
such as Yucatan, Tabasco, Campeche and Tlaxcala, produce 
practically nothing. Contrary to the use made of frijoles, the 
garbanzos are largely exported, over 2,000,000 pesos' worth being- 
sent abroad yearly, principally to Cuba and Spain, to meet the 
demand of the Spanish, whose crop is not sufficient for their 
own wants. 



COFFE^E. 



• MBXICO • 

QARBANZO (cmick^^.^ 



,000,000 le.ooo.ooo 




:3,ooo.ooo 



Tan AKtRiCAK Unioh 




*This word is spelled in many ways, according to its history or nation- 
ality. Frejol, frisol, feijao (in Portuguese), etc., arc common. In Spain 
this is the same as the jiidia. a bean that traces its ancestry back to the 
dark ages. 



COFFEE. 



93 



Coffee. — To the north of the 23d parallel there is no State 
that produces coffee in abundance. The zone with the largest 
comparative production is to be found contiguous to the Isthmus 
of Tehuantepec. In general, the States of Veracruz, Oaxaca, 
Chiapas, Tabasco and Colima, with some districts of the States 
of Puebla, Morelos, Jalisco, Hidalgo, Michoacan and Mexico, 
and of the territory of Tepic, produce coffee crops, and while 
Veracruz leads all otlier States in the quantity of its output, the 
State of Colima and the Uruapam district of the State of Michoa- 




COFFEE AND BaNANA PLANTATION NeAR CoRDOBA, StATE OF VeRACRUZ. 



can yield an article that is especially esteemed by connoisseurs 
for its delicate flavor. From a plantation in Colima a shipment 
of the berry is annually made to Berlin for the table of the Em- 
peror. 

Mexican coffee is of excellent quality. Where careful atten- 
tion is given to its cultivation the berry can be made to rival 
that of any other country. It is claimed also that it is possible 
so to increase the quantity produced that the output will equal 
that of all countries, except Brazil, combined. Mexico occupies, 
as a rule, the fourth place among the countries from which coffee 



94 



MEXICO. 



is supplied to the markets of the United States, and that country 
takes from Mexico the larger proportion of the coffee crop of 
the year. 

Coffee is not indigenous to Mexico, hut was originally hrought 
from the West Indies ahout 1790. It was not until 1818, how- 
ever, that the plant was properly cultivated there, when Don 
Juan A. Gamez, called the benefactor of Cordova, demonstrated 
that Mexico had the soil and climate essential to the cultivation 
of coffee. The plant flourishes best in well-watered and drained 
regions, in a hot, moist climate, at considerable elevation, in a 
rich soil. It can withstand Hght frosts only. Below 1.500 feet 
(457 meters) the plant seldom thrives, while above 5.000 feet 
f 1.524 meters) artificial shelter against cold winds is required. 
In all localities, also, shelter of some kind against too fierce a 
sun is necessary. 

The amount of coffee grown in Mexico varies from 35.000,000 
to 50.000.000 kilograms (77.000.0000 to 110,000,000 pounds), and 
the quantities exported fluctuate around 18.000,000 kilograms 
(39.600,000 pounds). 

Tobacco. — The cultivation of tobacco was carried on before 
the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards. The fine quality of 




Tobacco Plant.^tion Near Cordoba, Statf. of Veracruz. 



TOBACCO AND COTTON. 95 

the leaf grown in certain portions of the Pacific slope, and the 
large output of the State of Veracruz, encourage hope that the 
production of tobacco will become as profitable an industry in 
Mexico as it is in Cuba. 

The plant was called yetl by the Aztecs and was used by them 
and other native races, but it soon became popular among the 
Europeans. Its cultivation was not restricted for nearly two 
hundred years, but in 1764 the Crown appropriated the right to 
the sale and manufacture of the plant, its culture being limited 
to the districts of Orizaba, Cordoba, Huatusco and Zongolica. 
The_ revenues derived from the monopoly in 1783 amounted to 
$777,651, and in the first year of the nineteenth century about 
$4,000,000 silver accrued to the Government from this source. 
The principal factories at that time were situated in Mexico and 
Queretaro, their annual product amounting nearly to $7,500,000, 
one-half of which belonged to the Crown. 

In 1868 foreign cultivators and manufacturers, principally from 
Cuba, went to Mexico, where they began to cultivate the plant 
on an extensive scale. The French were successfully active in 
the upper valley of the Papaloapan River, where tobacco leaf, as 
silky as and even more aromatic than that of the Vuelta Aba jo in 
Cuba, was produced. 

Tobacco is raised along the mountain country lying between 
Victoria in the State of Tamaulipas, and Campeche in the State 
of the same name; also on the Pacific slope of the States of 
Chiapas, Oaxaca, Guerrero, Michoacan, Jalisco, Colima, Sonora 
and the Territory of Tepic; in the interior of these States also, 
as well as in the States of Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Tabasco, 
Mexico, and Puebla. The soil in the valleys along the rivers on 
the Pacific slope seems to offer the elements especially suited to 
the requirements of tobacco, and the extent of the tobacco region 
is estimated at one hundred times that of Cuba. 

Quantities of the raw material produced in the country are 
exported, but Mexico has cigar and cigarette factories to manu- 
facture whatever is not exported. There is a steady increase in 
the use of all the various forms of tobacco except the rape or 
snuff, the demand for which has almost ceased. The use of 
cigarettes is extending, having doubled in five years, and the 
homemade article has gradually driven those from Habana out of 
the Mexican market. 

Cotton. — Cotton has been cultivated in Mexico from time 
immemorial. Prior to the advent of the Aztecs in the valley of 
Mexico their predecessors knew and practiced the art of cotton- 
spinning. 

Although Mexico is so thoroughly adapted by soil and climate 
to the production of this fiber, and although there is an acreage 
sufficient to produce it in very large quantities, cotton is still im- 



96 .Mi:.\K(i. 

]>ortcd into Mexico. In l>n)() ,,vct IS.000,000 \u>uu'U (8.000,000 
kilograms), valued at 1,734,000 l>i-sos, were inipDricd, and at the 
same time almost 49,000,000 pounds (21.800,000 kilograms) were 
grown, louring the (h.scal) year 1909-10 over 8,000,000 pesos' 
worth of unmanufactured cotton was imported, although the 
crop was estimated to l)c 40,()l)(),000 pounds (18,000.000 kilo- 
grams) or 80.000 bales. 

Cotton is produced on the seaward slope of both cordilleras 
and also in the interior of the country. The great cotton belt is 
the Laguna district, which includes portions of the States of 
Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas. Durango, Zaca- 
tecas and San Luis Potosi. This district produces jirobably 
90% of the cotton grown in the Republic. On the Gulf side the 
State of Veracruz, and on the Pacific side all the States from 
Sonora to Chiapas, have cotton areas. In Sonora, the valleys of 
the Yaqui and the Mayo ; in Sinaloa, the valley of the Fuerte ; 
in Tepic, those of Tepic and Santiago, and in Jalisco, Michoacan, 
(luerrero, Oaxaca and Chiapas are cotton lands with substantial 
])roduction, but with better cultivation and at small cost the crops 
could be made enormous. 

The fiber is of good length and strength : thinner than that of 
American cotton, less silky and not so clean. The plant suffers 
from certain pests, of which the conchncla is perhaps the most 
common, and the "boll weevil," the principal pest of all cotton- 
growing countries. The "boll weevil" came originally from 
Alexico and crossed thence into Texas, but the Laguna District, 
being high and dry, and depending largely upon irrigation for 
water, has hitherto been encouragingly free from it. Informa- 
tion on methods of pest extermination is freely given by the 
Government to cotton growers. 

Cotton is still cultivated, over the older areas devoted to it, in 
a primitive way, the plow until recently being little used, and 
nature being left to exercise her energies unaided. Modern 
scientific agriculture has, however, been introduced with notice- 
able success. 

Cotton is baled under pressure of 3,000 to 4,000 pounds (1,360 
to 1,847 kilos.), square bales of about 500 pounds (226.79 kilos.) 
each resulting. As in the United States, also, buckles are used 
in baling, so that methods in the two republics are similar. Plant- 
ing takes place in March (in the Laguna district, at least), and 
picking begins normally toward September. 

The consumption of raw cotton in Mexico is estimated at 
something over 100,000 bales annually, but native production is 
not enough to satisfy domestic consumption, so that about 50,000 
bales are imported during the year. This is in addition to cotton 
beyond the raw state and cotton textures, of which considerable 



RUBBER. 



97 



quantities come from abroad, for the cotton factories of the 
Republic do not as yet meet the demands for all the finer prod- 
ucts. 

Rubber. — The rubber tree grows wild in many parts of Mex- 
ico. It abounds in the warm latitudes of the States of Veracruz, 
Tamaulipas, Tabasco, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Colima, 
Michoacan, and the Territory of Tepic. In several instances 
the cultivation of the tree itself in plantations has been seri- 
ously undertaken, but the natives, not appreciating the value of 
so important an element in their natural resources, have for 
many years been accustomed to exhaust the milk from the tree, 
boil it and take the rubber, made into balls, to market without 









-4^ 






m. . -M 


Jl^^^^^ 


r^cMm^,|Hpi^'j|^^^^|^^^^^^.. V 




m.. , ... -■-t.^j^i omita 


::^^-r;i- 


^^^B 
'^~^i^l 


■ . •■" .^ ■ ..^,- -' 


^fe 






''^^^-;^^ 






^^W '<'^i^^^^^^^^p 





Six-Month s'-Old Rubi'.er Plants. 



further precaution. Great numbers of trees have thereby been 
destroyed. 

While certain tropical regions in the States mentioned are un- 
doubtedly suited to the cultivation of the castilloa elastica, the 
variety indigenous to Mexico, it is acknowledged that no region 
in the Republic is capable of competing with the extensive rubber 
region of Brazil. Many planters do, however, plant rubber trees 
as shade for cacao trees, and when so grown the former may be 
cultivated at a nominal cost, as shade for the latter is in any case 
necessary and the cost of providing it can be charged against the 
cacao. This combination is attractive, as two valuable crops are 
produced on the same ground and under one management. These 



98 



MKXICO. 



problems must be investigated witb great care, however, as it 
ought not to be taken too readily for granted that the rubber 
tree is an inexhaustible source of wealth. 

In the region contiguous to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec there 
are hundreds of square miles adaptable to the rubber tree where 
it is found growing wild to-day. The hot climate is suitable, 
and there is an abundance of the best land, damp and low-lying, 
near the seashore or on the banks of numerous rivers. It is in 
this region that many plantations have been started. 

The tree yields when six or seven years old, but tapping should 
not begin, as a rule, until it is nine or ten years old. The method 
employed for this operation is of great importance and requires 
close attention. In fact, although the demand for rubber is con- 
stant and seems never to be equal to the supply, an investment in 
a plantation should in every case be studied on its merits, and 
personal inspection of all details is advisable. 

Gnaynlc. — This shrub, scientifically known by the botanical 
name of parthenium argentatum, grows in the mountain regions 
of the States of Zacatecas, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi, Coa- 
huila, Durango, Chihuahua, and Sonora, small areas of like soil 
and climate being found in Texas also. It is about three feet 



RUBBE.R 



PE30S 



356,M6 



2,390,425 



8,b91,978 



MEXICO 



6.000,000 IE.000,000 



i 



23 



1908-09 



PE5Q3 



117,026 



ei,eE5 



1, £92,875 



4, 541,074 



1909-10 9,468,iai 




CHICLE. 



PESOS 



833,950 J) 



,£31,045 2] 



1,473,62>6 3l 
l,5SO,2,£l 2| 
l,6£3,46fe ^2] 



1.696.5£S 



a,144,7£4 



£.251,520 



^m 



CWfl 



H.XRORXS 



GUAYULrE, WAS NOT 



Ta-m AMt.K.icAN Union 



GUAYULE AND CHICLE. 99 

high, and was, until recent years, considered as of no value, and 
even a detriment to the land it occupied. 

Undoubtedly, however, the Indians knew of the property of 
the guayule juice, for the name would seem to have come from 
the colloquial expression "hay hule," meaning, in Spanish, "here's 
rubber." Whether or not this can be accepted as the true deriva- 
tion, it is certain that they used it in a domestic way for this 
reason. 

The plant grows at an altitude of 3,000 to 6,000 feet (914 to 
1,828 meters), blossoms in September or October, propagates 
itself slowly, and dies after fifteen years of growth. It produces 
from 6 to 12 per cent of rubber, which differs from the best 
Para quality in some respects, but for many purposes for which 
rubber plays an important part in modern industry, it has re- 
ceived world-wide recognition. Efforts to preserve the plant by 
allowing the main part to spread over the ground have not been 
completely successful. Undoubtedly it can be cultivated, but the 
method demands further scientific study. 

In 1876 the State of Durango exhibited in Philadelphia extract 
from guayule, but it caused little comment. In 1890 the Indians 
of that neighborhood called attention to it. In 1896 it was exam- 
ined critically and in 1899 patents were taken out for the pro- 
duction of the extract. In 1903 factories were started for the 
process, in 1904 this became a real business, and made rapid 
progress from that date through 1906 to the present. 

There are four distinct advantages in guayule. It grows in an 
otherwise sterile soil (if this contains a due amount of lime), 
it requires only a subtropical climate, healthy at all times, it can 
be gathered all the year round, and commercially it is profitable, 
even considering the low per cent of rubber content. 

By the end of the year 1910 the guayule industry has assumed 
immense proportions, and has been the cause of the rapid growth 
in population and activity of a large area of Mexico. It is esti- 
mated that $65,000,000 (gold) of capital is employed, and that 
there are $65,000,000 (gold) of shrub in sight in the State of 
Coahuila alone. During the last four months of 1910 the output 
of guayule amounted to about 6,000,000 pounds, valued at 
$6,000,000 (gold). 

Chicle. — Among the chief productions of Mexico is the gum 
known as chicle, which exudes from the achras sapota, a tree 
found growing wild in the northern portion of South America, 
in Central America, and in the Mexican States of Yucatan, 
Campeche. Tabasco, Chiapas, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Puebla, Jalisco, 
San Luis Potosi, and the Territories of Tepic and Quintana Roo. 

As yet the systematic cultivation of the sapota or sapote has 
not been carried on to any great extent, but the tree begins to 
give a good yield when about eight years old. In the wild state 




A t"ll K 1,1 K(i A r WoUK. 

Tile gatherer dl ilie Cliicle iiuut cliinhs the tree hy a nali\-c roije dcxicc. 

lie carries uiih liini the machete with which he makes the 

inci-ioii inv cdllectiiisj the Lium. 



VANILLA. 101 

it is usually found in groups, and the natives are the best judges 
of the tree and its probable value. They gather the chicle in the 
forests along the rivers, these chicleros, as they are called, being 
very expert and agile in their work. The method of collecting 
the gum is quite like that employed in the rubber industry ; trees 
are tapped by an incision around them and the sap flows into 
the lower notch, at which point a cup is attached to collect the 
sap. By care, production from a tree may be continued even to 
twenty-five years, but too deep an incision will kill. The Gov- 
ernment is exercising commendable restrictions over the various 
stages of gathering, so that the forests shall be uninjured. 

All chicle exported is used in the manufacture of chewing 
gum, as it forms the basis for that popular article, no substitute 
having been found for it. The great proportion goes to the 
United States ultimately, although in the reports Canada receives 
large shipments, because the preparation of the raw material into 
a refined article, as conducted in that country, lowers the duty 
cost into the United States. Upwards of five and one-half million 
pounds of chicle are annually imported into the United States, 
valued at almost $2,000,000. 

Vanilla. — As far back as the time of the Aztecs the vanilla 
was used to spice the chocolate. The Spaniards, quick to see 
the value of vanilla as an article of export, began the cultivation 
of the aromatic pod. For a long time the former province of 
Veracruz supplied the whole world with vanilla, until the Bour- 
bon Islands and Java waged competition against it. 

The vanilla of Mexico is the superior of all other varieties as 
to aroma, and the pod yields a much larger quantity of essen- 
tial oils. In the markets of the United States about one-fourth 
of the imports of vanilla beans comes from Mexico, at two or 
three times the price paid for the product of other countries. 

Vanilla is to a large extent cultivated in plantations, on damp 
but not swampy or muddy lands in the tropics, where the neces- 
sary shade can be secured, a condition found in all the States 
contiguous to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The plant begins to 
yield thirty-nine months after planting, and continues to yield 
during ten to twelve years. The average yield is from ten to 
twenty pods to a vine, artificial fertilization producing much 
more. The cultivation of vanilla has many advantages, among 
others the fact that corn and similar crops can be grown in con- 
junction with it, while on coffee plantations it can be made to 
play a secondary but profitable part. 

Vanilla, or as the Spanish word is spelled, vainilla, is a genus 
of climbing tropical orchid, \v1th thick leaves and spikes of 
large but not very beautiful flowers. V. aromatica is the best 
variety and is grown now in many parts of the world, but other 
varieties are often used in its place. 



102 



MEXICO. 



Si((/ar Caiic. — The cultivation of su^ar cane was among the 
agricultural improvements introduced into Mexico by the Span- 
iards, as early as the time of Cortes, who had a sugar mill near 
Cuernavaca, which is still in operation in the possession of his 
descendants. To-day there is hardly a crop which, as far as 
natural conditions in Mexico are concerned, rests on a surer 
basis. Sugar cane grows in practically every State in the Re- 
public, and it is due to the primitive methods employed, as well 
as to former difificulties in the way of transportation, that the 
Republic has not entered more largely into the sugar export 
trade. 

Great fertility of soil abounds in the Gulf States and the rain- 




"La Aurora" Sugar Factory, Culiacan, State of Sinaloa. 



fall is ample. In the inland State of Morelos, however, where 
the largest quantity of sugar is produced, irrigation is necessary, 
as is also true of sugar lands on the Pacific coast. Lands on the 
elevated levels yield less than those on the lowlands, but recently 
attempts to grow the sugar beet on the plateau have met with 
decided success. From 25 to 45 tons of cane an acre is stated to 
je the average yield on the elevated plantations, and from 40 to 
60 tons in the tropical lands. Replanting is necessary more often 
'n the highlands than in the lowlands, where every seven years 
s sufficient. If modern machinery is employed, and the plant 
is under an experienced engineer, the yield can be materially 
increased. 



SUGAR. 103 

The cane, especially on the Gulf slope, grows to an enormous 
size, and does not need a heavy outlay for its cultivation. In 
fact, Mexico is in many respects an ideal sugar-producing coun- 
try, and it might rank with Cuba if as much attention were given 
the crop in one country as in the other. The best-known plan- 
tations are and have been owned for generations by old families 
who possess immense tracts of land and have an abundance of 
cheap labor at their command. Their mills are primitive and 
they are guided by conservative motives which retard progress. 
When modern methods are introduced the sugar resources of 
the country will greatly increase. As it is, the national produc- 
tion about balances the national consumption, and what amount 
is imported goes to meet the demand of a certain quality of con- 
sumers, while what is exported serves its particular purpose 
abroad. Morelos is the heaviest producing State, Mexico the 
lightest, as a rule. 

The crop for 1907-08 amounted to almost 123,500.000 kilo- 
grams (271,700,000 pounds), to which must be added 71,000,000 
kilograms (156,200,000 pounds) of molasses and 50,000,000 
kilograms (110,000,000 pounds) of panela (brown sugar). Yet 
it is safe to say that not more than ten per cent of the land 
available for the planting of sugar cane is utilized. There is 
yet a large field in the country for the best class of refining mills, 
although there are over 2,000 sugar mills, large and small, in 
Mexico, and the tendency is both to increase the acreage under 
cultivation and to modernize the methods used in the refining of 
the raw material. 

vSugar production by States is shown in the accompanying 
table : 

Production of sugar and molasses by States. Kilos. 

Sugar. Molasses. 

Campeche 317.778 293,336 

Chiapas 776,300 655,700 

Colima 1,545,000 770.000 

Guerrero 2,765,750 3,331.000 

Jalisco 5,602,000 5,985,650 

Mexico 210,485 1,022,839 

Michoacan 8,481,560 5,985,464 

Moreias 48,219.733 18,300,619 

Nuevo Leon 1,206,000 600,000 

Oaxaca 1,697,589 3,620,973 

Puebla 18,157,000 8,907,000 

San Luis Potosi 2,035,352 3,906,350 

Sinaloa 6,347,300 2,710,000 

Tabasco 2,045,000 1,186,000 

Tamaulipas 1,412,000 1,530,000 

Tepic 3.300,000 1.100.000 

Veracruz 18,242,735 10,130,179 

Yucatan 923,730 912,463 

Kilogram=2.20 pounds. 



104 



MEXICO. 



Hciicqucn. — Chief among the numberless fiber plants produced 
in Mexico is the Jicucqucn (Agave rigida), also called sisal grass 
or hemp, the natural home of which is the peninsula of Yucatan. 
It belongs to the iiiagiicy (agave) family, and was called mctl 
by the Aztecs, who from time immemorial used it as an article 
of food, the leaves likewise being utilized for roofing, the fiber 
for weaving, and the juice for the preparation of a drink called 
octli, the pulque of to-day. Paper was made from the pulp of 
the maguey, and this product resembled the papyrus of the 
ancients ; had it not been for its wonderful durability rare and 
valuable Mexican manuscripts would have been forever lost. 

There are several varieties of the plant, known by Maya names, 
which require but little or no cultivation and but small outlay. 
Henequen, sisal, ixtle or istle are indigenous words, and in their 
use much of the civilization of early Mexico can be traced. 
Henequen is one name given to one product of the maguey, and 
this has a recognized trade significance, but it has not displaced 
sisal in commercial nomenclature, for although henequen is ex- 
ported from iMexico, it is lost or concealed under the term sisal 
or istle wlien imported into the United States. 




• MRXICO » 

nE.NBQUBN BXPORTS 



FISCAL 
VtA-RS 


F£505 








lE.OOO.OOO 


ia,oo 


0.000 




!i4,0O 


o;ooo 


30,000.000 






! 










1 


1900-01 


ie,402,316 


-^-^■- ' 




_;_.[- -■ '"-^ 


a 






1901-02. 


29.S09,515 




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1902-03 


32,620,579 


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29,437.315 




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1906-07 


31,440,246 














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1907-Oa 


27,019,340 












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190a-09 


23.862,701 


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1909-10 


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'PAHAr.i.i^iCAN Union 



TEXTILE FIBERS. 



105 



Henequen (sisal) is descriptive of the fiber made and exported 
from the States of Yucatan, Campeche, Chiapas, JaHsco, and a 
few others of less importance. The manufacture of fiber from 
the agave sisalcnsis is the basis of the prosperity of Yucatan,, 
and represents one of the chief values in the list of Mexico's 
agricultural productions. The plant resembles the century plant 
familiar in hot-houses of the United States ; it grows best in arid 
and stony regions where other cultivation is impossible. Propa- 
gation is effected by suckers, maturity is attained in about five 
years, and replanting is required about once in 15 to 20 years. 
The yield of the fiber is influenced by the weather conditions,, 
humidity retarding growth. There is no fixed harvesting sea- 
son, as this is determined by the individual maturity of the plant. 
The traditional skill of the natives is here relied upon for the 
gathering, which takes place in a way not so very dissimilar from 
that which must have been practiced ages ago. 

In Yucatan the average plantation is 500 acres (202.34 hec- 
tares) ; it is estimated that about 100,000 acres (40,468 hectares) 
are at present under cultivation, giving employment to 90,000 
Indians, many of the families having lived for generations on the 
same plantation. After the leaves are cut down and the spiney 
covering removed, the threads are extracted in bundles, bleached, 
dried, pressed into bales, each weighing about 400 pounds, and in 
this shape sent abroad. Its further manufacture into rope, 
cordage and cable is then completed at the foreign factory. 

I.rtic, which is extracted from the leaves of the lechugilla, an 

agave (ixtle) or maguey nianso, is another important fiber im- 

: ported into the United States as istle or Tampico fiber, for the 

manufacture of many articles. Coahuila is the largest producer, 

'but San Luis Potosi, Jalisco, Nuevo Leon, Oaxaca and other 

States add considerable to the total output. Ixtle lands are to- 



lSOI-02. 



1903-04 



1305-06 



1906-07 



1907 -08 



1906-09 



1,5D4,553 



1,74:5,077 



3,126,6£4 



3,209,810 



3,495,669 



3,667,644 



3,813, 17€ 



£.900,727 



e.,871,914 



1909-10 3,091.7£1 




MEXICO 



IXTLB 
BXPORTS 



TAM AMiT^ICAM UmOM 



lor, 



MF.XICO. 



day among the most valuahlc in the Kepuljhc, as the ])lant re- 
quires but Httle cultivation and propagates itself annually, lieing 
an "atmospheric plant," it is not dependent upon the rainfall, 
although a moderate amount of moisture assists in its growth, 
and the resultant filler is better in fairly wet than in very dry 
seasons. The work of gathering and preparing the Icchngilla is 
disagreeable and there is difBculty in obtaining labor for it; a 
number of machines have been invented to take the place of 
manual labor, but there is still a reward for successful mechani- 
cal applicances to serve the purpose. 

The United States and Germany take almost all of Mexico's 
ixtlc, the exports of which have reached nearly 18,000,000 kilo- 
grams (39,600,000 pounds), valued at nearly 3,000,000 pesos. 

Jute and Flax. — Jute is found in its wild state in various parts 
of the Republic, more especially on the coastal plains of the 
State of A'eracruz. Recently successful attempts have been 
made toward its cultivation, but not on a sufficiently large scale, 
on account of labor difificulties, to affect the importation of raw 
jute from Calcutta. Similar attempts have been made also with 
flax. The textile requirements of the Republic are now prac- 
tically supplied by factories in the country, the most important 
one being situated in the State of Orizaba. There is a linen mill 
in Mexico City. 

Zapnpe. — The growing of this plant beyond the experimental 
stage was only begun in 1905, when considerable interest was 




Z'apupe Plant. 



TEXTILE FIBERS. lO/" 

taken in the industry, the result being that over 5,000 acres (2,023- 
hectares) have been placed under cultivation in the State of 
Tamaulipas, and additional large tracts are being cleared. It 
produces a fine white fiber, strong, brilliant, soft and pliable in 
texture, and is said to be far superior to other similar Mexican 
plants in quality, and to have more rapid growth, yielding a good;' 
return in three years, while the others require five to seven years. 

Seven kinds of Zapupe are known in Tamaulipas, but only 
three are cultivated — the est ope, or blue; the tantoyuca, or long 
leaf ; and the tepesintla, or short leaf, this last being the most 
popular and productive. A light, sandy, well-drained soil is the 
best, and in it the plant grows hardily and vigorously with but 
little attention, after it is once properly started. Planting can 
be done at any time of the year, although it is best to complete 
the operation either before the beginning or at the end of the 
rainy season (which is April to October). In full development 
the zapupe is strong and formidable, and will not be molested by- 
animals of any kind, so that on this account fencing may be 
avoided. The leaves may be harvested at any time, but are 
usually cut every three months. 

The uses to which zapupe may be adapted are almost unlim- 
ited. From its fiber is manufactured fine cord and rope, and 
when the fiber is divided by machinery into 100 parts or threads,, 
it has been utilized to replace silk. The entire output is con- 
sumed in Mexico. 

Escoha. — In the State of Colima there is an indigenous fiber 
plant called escoba (centaurea salmantica), a shrub growing- 
from 18 inches to 4j4 feet high (^ to Ij^ meters). The word 
means "broom" and is derived from the fact that the natives cut 
it each year, and after drying it bind it into small bundles, which: 
are then used for sweeping. Native ropes are also made of it 
after the bark is stripped ofif. The escoba grows in all the open 
cleared land throughout this region, and upon being cut at the 
end of one season is sufficiently matured for cutting again at the 
end of the next rainy season. 

Pita. — Another fiber plant is pita {furor ea gigantea), which 
grows wild in the northern section of the State of Veracruz. 
This is quite distinct from sisal and zapupe. In two or three- 
years it has reached full maturity, after which the leaves can be 
removed every three months. Pita fiber is now extracted by 
hand in small quantities for local consumption, and is used in 
the manufacture of seines, nets, matting and numerous other ar- 
ticles requiring a fiber of unusual strength and pliability, such as 
lariats and hammocks. 

Zacaton. — Among the numerous Mexican plants utilized in the 
industries of other countries is zacaton, or broom corn. It be- 
longs to the family of graminaes (epicampes niacroura) and is: 



108 Mi-:xia). 

found wild in many sections of the country. Havinj^ been 
classed as a weed it has not been cultivated to any extent. The 
valuable part of the plant is the root, which may be j^athered at 
all seasons of the year, after which it is cleaned of its thin skin 
and all objectionable matter. These roots, when bleached, sorted 
and packed in bales, are compressed by primitive means for 
shipment. It has been proven by experiments that cultivated 
zacaton is superior to the wild species. I-'rance and Germany 
are the principal markets, fully 90 per cent of the entire yearly 
shipments from Veracruz going to these countries. The yearly 
export, under the name of /?flz,cr dc zacaton is something over 
4,000,000 kilograms (t),680,000 pounds), valued at 2,000,000 

I'CSOS. 

Cacao. — {Thcobroina, in Greek — the food of the gods) is an- 
other plant indigenous to Mexico, It has been cultivated by the 
aborigines from remote times, and from its bean they made their 
drink chocolatl (chocolate), which was considered to have great 
sustaining virtues, and Cortes, speaking of the general adoption 
oi the beverage by his soldiers, in his first letter to Charles V, 
says: "He who has drunk his cup of chocolate travels a whole 
(lay without taking other food." 

Ever since chocolate came into general use in Euroj^e, in the 
latter part of the seventeenth century, the high grade cacao has 
l)een furnished largely by the States of Tabasco, Jalisco and 
Chiapas. The Mexican home consumption is very large, yet the 
])roduction no more than meets the demand, as only a small quan- 
tity is exported, and that to Spain. 

Cacao requires a warm and moist climate, the best lands lying 
between sea level and 1,600 feet (487 meters) above, in locali- 
ties protected from strong winds. Although there are many dis- 
tricts in Mexico affording the necessary conditions of climate 
and soil, the cultivation of cacao is chiefly in the hands of the 
Indians, who raise it on a small scale and carry their crops to 
market, where they are bought by merchants for shipment to 
the large consuming centers. The tree begins bearing four years 
after planting and may yield three crops a year. The maximum 
production is reached about the tenth year. 

As the cacao bean is the basis of the manufacture of chocolate 
and by-products like cacao butter, its cultivation offers a good 
field for profit. The annual production amounts to a trifle over 
2,700,000 kilograms (5,940,000 pounds), valued at 2,168,000 
f^csos, which varies with the years. 

Oleaginous plants. — Mexico produces several plants yielding 
oils, both industrial and succulent, but no great industry has as 
yet developed from them. The pinon ijatropha cnrcas), yielding 
16 per cent of a strong cathartic oil; the riccinus communis 



FRUITS. 109 

(castor-oil bean), yielding 40 per cent of that oil; ajonjoli {scsa- 
mun indicum), sesame, yielding 33 per cent of a soft, sweet oil; 
the peanut (arachis hypogaea), which yields an oil much prized 
in France ; and many others but little known. Their products 
are exported to meet special demands or tastes abroad. 

The vine, olive and mulberry trees. — Experiments in intro- 
ducing the industries relating to these plants date as far back 
as the time of Cortes, who himself encouraged them. The silk- 
worm industry made fair progress at first, but competition from 
Spain and the Philippines caused its neglect. Efforts to revive 
it are occasionally being made. 

"Cultivation of olives and the vine labored under severe restric- 
tion. Admirably adapted as soil and climate were for both pur- 
poses, the few plantations of olives were merely allowed to exist 
because they belonged to pious institutions, while as to the vine, 
the viceroys were instructed not to permit the planting of new 
cuttings, nor even the replacing of vines in decay. Wine could 
be made only on condition of paying taxes to the Crown."* The 
Department of Promotion (Fomcnto), however, encourages the 
culture of all these plants. Trial plantations have been success- 
ful, and there is hope that production may be commercially 
profitable. 

Mexico is not yet a recognized wine-producing country, but 
serious efforts are constantly being made, and table wines in con- 
siderable quantities are on the market. Some of the land best 
adapted to viticulture is in the vicinity of Parras, State of 
Coahuila, where the industry" has been well established. Several 
varieties of vine have been imported from abroad, and cellars 
built. The grape most used is that known in California as the 
"Mission" grape, introduced in early times by the missionary 
fathers from Spain. Grapes as an article of table food are 
grown in practically every State, the yearly production averag- 
ing about 3,000,000 kilograms (6,600,000 pounds), valued at 
nearly 330,000 pesos. Coahuila. Chihuahua and Durango show 
the largest crops. 

As regards olive and mulberry trees, abundant cuttings have 
been imported and the industries connected with them have re- 
ceived attention in the States of Coahuila, Puebla, Jalisco, 
Michoacan and Guanajuato. The entire subject merits close 
study from the economist, the agriculturist and the commercial 
prospector. 

Fruit Culture. — This is an industry for which Mexico affords 
almost unHmited facilities, and which as yet is only in its in- 
fancy. 

The characteristic fruits of cold and temperate climates can 



^Bancroft, History of Mexico, Vol. Ill, p. 613. 



110 MEXICO. 

be grown with success in the higher altitudes, while all the trop- 
ical and sub-tropical fruits are indigenous in the tierra caliciitc. 

In the cultivation of orchard fruits — apples, pears and the like 
— tiiere is reason to believe that a retrogression both in the 
quantity and Havor of the output has taken place. There are 
spots in the X'alley of j\iexico, such as the neighborhood of San 
Angel, where large liucrtas (gardens) were once in nourishing 
condition, supplying the markets of the capital witli pears, ap- 
ples, peaches and apricots of a quality superior to that which 
they show at present. It is an anomalous condition that Ameri- 
can pears and apples, chiefly from the State of California, should 
be imported into Mexico in considerable quantities and should 
supply the tables of the well-to-do almost to the exclusion of 
the native product. Both the climate and the soil of Mexico in 
the temperate region afford every advantage for the cultivation 
of such fruits, and all that is needed to obtain a product equal 
if not superior to the best imported article is the introduction of 
modern scientific methods of cultivation. 

Strawberries of the finest flavor are grown all the year round 
in the neighborhood of Irapuato, State of Guanajuato, and at 
points in the \'alley of Mexico. There is no reason why this 
industry should not be indefinitely expanded, as the fruit has an 
assured and profitable market at all seasons of the year, both in 
Mexico and the United States. 

The Indian fruit-growers of San Angel, near the capital, have 
within the last few years undertaken the culture of the rasp- 
berry, a fruit formerly unknown in Mexico. 

Many of the owners of huertas (gardens), with all their un- 
pretending exterior, have amassed considerable fortunes, but 
their methods are primitive and empirical, and the cultivation of 
the fruits of the temperate zone in Mexico needs to be attacked 
with all the resources of modern science. 

As for semi-tropical and tropical fruits obviously Mexico has 
facilities which no portion of the continental domains of the 
United States can rival. Again, however, methods of culture 
have not yet proved equal to the opportunities. Oranges from 
various parts of the country are famous, and when imported 
into the United States are sold side by side with those from 
Florida and California. But they can be still further improved 
by more careful and intelligent methods of culture. 

The orange is the leading member of the aurantiaceous family 
under the genus citrus. Three leading kinds are grown in 
Mexico — sweet, sour, and Chinese or mandarin — while another, 
called lima-orange, is a variety of the sweet orange. The coun- 
try affords much better facilities for the cultivation of this fruit 
than does the southern portion of Europe, where irrigation is 
necessary. In Mexico, the rain, beginning in May or June, takes 



112 



Mi:xico. 



the place of irrigation. California and Morida stuck lia\e been 
imported and grafted or budded with Mexican trees. Tea for 
the Indians and the poor is made from the leaves, and a popular 
wine is made from the unused supply of the fruit itself. The 
distilled water of the blossoms, used for toilet purposes, could be 
obtained, and other by-products of the orange, by developing 
these industries. 

The orange tree can be cultivated in Mexico at an altitude 
from 100 to 2,.^00 feet (30 to 762 meters) above sea level. The 
Hower in the warmer climate usually ap])ears in the latter part 
of October and the season lasts throughout the entire territory 
until Alav. The yield varies considerably, according to soil, cli- 
mate, irrigation and cultivation. Every State in the Republic 
grows oranges, and the export quantity is increasing. The 
United States imports from that country have grown steadily 
from $43,000 in 1905 to $78,500 in 1909 (fiscal years), and has 
gradually passed the imports from Italy and the United King- 
dom. Oranges famous not only in Mexico but even abroad come 
f]-om Hermosillo in the State of Sonora, Montemorelos in the 
State of Nuevo Leon, La Barca and other districts in the State 
of Jalisco, and Yuatepec in the State of Oaxaca. 




PiNKAPPLK Cl'LTIV.VTIoX Xi:AR CoRDOBA, StATE OF VkRACRIZ. 



FRUITS. 113* 

Bananas grow spontaneously in great abundance near the 
Mexican coast. On lands close to the sea, plantations of banana 
trees are cultivated with encouraging success. The industry has 
not, however, been developed so systematically as in other coun- 
tries adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, 
although there is no good reason why Mexico, too, should not be 
exporting bananas abundantly. The State of Veracruz leads in 
banana production, followed by Michoacan, Chiapas, Jalisco, and 
San Luis Potosi, the others being credited with lesser amounts. 
Aguascalientes, Colima, Federal District, and Puebla produce 
practically no bananas. In 1909 over 212,000 bunches were im- 
ported into the United States from Mexico, a decided increase 
as compared with the number in the preceding year. 

Pineapples also are cultivated to a great extent. This fruit is 
easily raised and needs but little care after planting. A crop of 
corn sown among the pineapples will meet the expense of cul- 
tivation, reducing the cost, therefore, to almost nothing. Vera- 
cruz and Chiapas furnish the largest supply, but all of the States 
at the south report pineapple crops, while toward the north the 
quantity produced becomes progressively less. Very few pine- 
apples are exported. 

For the production of the typical fruits of the tropics, apart 
from the banana and pineapple, such as the gitava, mamey, the 
luscious custard-apple, the manao, the different and delicious 
varieties of capote, the alligator pear (aguacatc), etc., Alexico 
affords facilities equal to those of the West Indian Islands, and 
as the production in Mexico at present of marketable quantities 
ot such fruits is inconsiderable, and is wholly unsvstematized, 
there are obvious openings in this line of enterprise for fruit 
growers possessing some capital together with technical knowl- 
edge, sound business judgment and perseverance. 

What has been said in regard to the cultivation of fruit in 
Mexico applies to vegetables also. The produce of the chinampas 
oi- floating gardens of Lake Xochimilco. has been famous from 
times antedating the conquest, but the methods of cultivation 
have not greatly progressed since those early days. The business 
remains in the hands of the Indian market gardeners who are 
routmaire m their ways. The quality and flavor of manv vege- 
tables leave something to be desired, and the defect can be over- 
come only by the application of modern methods of culture. 
Such vegetables as green peas, asparagus, celerv, etc.. could be 
produced m ^lexico to rival in size, flavor and qualitv the finest 
products of the skilled market gardeners of the United States 
and Europe. Yet the consumption in Mexico of canned fruit 
and vegetables is considerable. 

The attention, however, of nurserymen in Mexico has been 
drawn to the market available in the United States during the 



114 MKXICO. 

winter and early spring months for certain classes of vegetables, 
of which large quantities, grown along the northern line, are 
now shipped across the border. Americans themselves, realizing 
the profits to be made in this business, are taking it up, and the 
effects of competition and introduction of more modern meth- 
ods cannot but be beneficial to the market gardening industry. 
Mexico still imports over 1,000,000 pesos' worth of vegetable and 
other food stuffs which might easily be produced within its own 
area, if the opportunities were properly utilized. 

Besides the resources of the vegetable world available for the 
nourishment or pleasure of man, there are many species of the 
flora of Mexico enumerated as medicinal plants. In an official 
list prepared in 1893 by the Government, 232 distinct species of 
this character are given, and undoubtedly others have been added 
since that date. Among the most prominent are the jalap root 
(ipoiiiaca), so called because it was discovered and has since been 
most largely produced in the neighborhood of the city of Jalapa, 
capital of the State of \^eracruz ; sarsaparilla (smilax sarsa- 
parilla), which grows wild but is reported chiefly from the State 
of Oaxaca ; damiana (biglovia venenata) and the castor oil bean, 
which thrives with particular luxury throughout the country. 
Many other drugs derived from native use are undoubtedly of 
value, but the plants supplying them need careful attention, and 
the uses to which they are put by the Indians must first be investi- 
gated and separated from the superstition surrounding them. 

Timber. 

Mexico is particularly rich in forest resources. The ex- 
tensive forests of the hot country (tierra calicnte) in the States 
along the coasts contain not only mahogany and a great variety 
of other cabinet woods, but also woods yielding precious gums, 
woods for dyeing purposes and other industrial uses. 

Moreover, the extensive wooded tracts of the temperate coun- 
try {tierra templada) contain a good quality of pine and other 
timber for carpentering and construction purposes. 

What is urgently needed is a more scientific investigation of 
the forestry resources of the country. The methods of felling 
and hauling timber in the forests of the hot country are wasteful 
and destructive, while in the more temperate regions the defores- 
tation of the land has proceeded at a rapid rate, owing to the 
demand for building, railway construction, mining and fuel 
purposes. 

It is conservatively estiriiated that the area of first-class timber 
in Mexico comprises from 20,000.000 to 25,000,000 acres 
(8,000,000 to 10,000,000 hectares). The heaviest stumpage of 
pine and oak is found in the States of Chihuahua, Durango, 



116 



MEXICO. 



Jalisco, Miohoacan and ( iucrrcro, and the standing forests in these 
States compare favorably with similar timber in the United States 
and Canada, as regards quality, diameter, and extreme length of 
clear body. The best timber is still more or less remote from 
transportation, but railway extensions are constantly being carried 
out which will make accessible one of the great resources of the 
Republic. 

The white and red oaks of Mexico comprise six species, in- 
cluding the roblc oak, a very superior grade, which is claimed 
to have no peer as regards finish. Others show a fine quarter 
and grain, with thin sap, and will take a splendid finish. 

Mexican pine comprises six species, as follows : white, sugar, 
and bastard white, white and red fir, and a small percentage of 
yellow pine. 

There are also found in Mexico some 25 varieties of hard 
woods not known to the lumber markets of the world, some of 
which might be classed with other precious hard woods. Mex- 
ico's mahogany and (Spanish) cedar rating is already well estab- 
lished in foreign markets. The largest bodies of these fine tim- 
bers, or tropical hard woods, are to be found in the Gulf States, 
or, more definitely, on the Gulf of Mexico side of the Isthmus 




Thk Famous "Pochoto" or Cotton Tree Shading the Market Place 
IN THE Town of Tonala, State of Chiapas. 



TIMBER. 



117 



of Tehuantepec in the States of Veracruz, Tabasco and 
Campeche. 

Among the chief of these valuable woods should be mentioned 
the zapote mamcy, which resembles the walnut in appearance, 
is of a dark-brown cinnamon color, has about the same grain as 
mahogany, and is capable of a very high polish. The zapote 
chico, of 'the same family as the zapote mamey, is practically one 
of the most valuable woods growing in the tropics. The trees 
are of a great size, the length of their clear body being often 50 
feet, and in sections of the tropics they are very plentiful. The 
sap, which is the chicle of commerce (q. v.), is gathered very 
much in the same manner as the rubber sap. The business con- 
nected with it has become quite prosperous in Mexico. The 
wood of this zapote tree is of a clear, deep reddish-brown color, 
very hard, but easily worked until thoroughly seasoned, when 
only the finest edged tools have any effect on its surface. The 
fiber is of such density that the wood sinks rapidly in water. 
The wood is susceptible of a beautiful finish, and is valuable for 
furniture. From various experiments of driven piling for both 
railway and port construction it has been found that the chico 
zapote bears the test of a much longer period of endurance than 
oak; the sea worms will not attack it; and for withstanding the 
effects of either salt or fresh water, mud, wet or arid soil, it 
appears comparatively indestructible. 

Zapotillo Colorado is another tree of the same family as the 
sapotes. It is often three feet in diameter and usually yields 50 
feet of trunk without knots. The grain is very close, light in 
color, and takes a fine polish. Zapotillo bianco is a beautiful 
white wood with yellowish tinge of even color, and is very de- 
sirable for inside house finishing. 

The palo maria, with a trunk from 50 to 100 feet long and 
clear of knots, closely resembles mahogany in color, grain and 
weight. 

The red cedar (juniperus virginiana) is one of the best-known 
woods in Mexico ; it is of even grain and color, and is extensively 
used for lead pencils and cigar boxes. 

One of the most promising of the undeveloped woods is the 
granadilla, a kind of rosewood, in appearance equal to mahogany, 
of a rich, reddish-brown color and with dark wave line markings. 

A beautiful and curiously marked wood is the galeado. The 
color is yellow with distinct irregular markings of seal-brown, 
close grain and very heavy. 

Maccaya, much like hickory, is used by the Indians for wagon 
work. Other less known woods are the coralillo, guapage, 
huisch, jicoco, cork wood, of which there is a large amount in the 
tropics, and the ligmint vita. 

Although abundant information regarding timber resources 



118 Mi:xico. 

in many dififerent countries has been accumulated, it would seem, 
according to those intimate with the timber resources of Mexico, 
that the great wealth contained in its forests is not yet appreciated 
by the lumber world. The railroads are, however, now begin- 
ning to oi)en up the country in some of the timber regions, and 
already narrow gauge and logging railways are either in process 
of construction or being projected. Lumber companies are erect- 
ing new and enlarged mills, and the lumber industry of the coun- 
try, as yet in its infancy, is certain to have a tremendous growth 
with the advent of transportation facilities. 

The Government has demonstrated its interest in forestry ques- 
tions by appointing a Central Board of Forestry and Arboricul- 
ture in connection with the Agricultural Bureau of the Depart- 
ment of Promotion [Fonicnto). The personnel of this Central 
Board of Forestry consists of a Chairman, a Vice-Chairman, and 
five other members, the Chairman of the Board being also Di- 
rector or Chief of the Forestry Service of the Republic. 

The object of the Forestry Service is to take measures, in con- 
cert with the Federal Government, the governments of the States 
and other local authorities, for the conservation, proper exploita- 
tion and reforestation of forests. This service has been fully 
organized in the Federal District, wdiich, for the purpose, has 
been divided into three sections, viz. : the Northern, the Southern, 
and the Southwestern, with a suitable corps of inspectors, for- 
esters and keepers, for the supervision and care of existing forests 
and the reforestation of tracts that have been depleted of their 
timber. 

Four nurseries have already been established in the Federal 
District — one in the southern section at Coyacan ; one in the 
northern section at the village of San Juan de Aragon ; and two 
in the southwestern section, one being situated in the Bosque de 
Santa Fe and the other in the Bosque del Desierto. A beginning 
has been made in setting out young trees in these nurseries. The 
number of young trees reared in these nurseries during 1909 was 
about six million, and in 1910 the output is close to fifteen 
million. 

Work has also been undertaken in the formation of an arti- 
ficial dune around the city of Veracruz by the planting of trees 
which, it is hoped, will give consistency to the soil and prevent 
the constant encroachments inland of sand from the beach, as 
well as improving the hygienic condition of the country's chief 
seaport. In connection with this work a nursery has been estab- 
lished at Veracruz wdiich, besides furnishing trees for the arti- 
ficial dune, serves as an experimental arboricultural station, with 
the special purpose of determining what trees are best adapted 
for cultivation and propagation in the hot country (ticrra 
Calient c). 



STOCK. 



119 



Trees are also being set out in the marshy ground around Vera- 
cruz with a view to its dessication and the improvement of the 
port's health condition. A special corps of employees, acting 
under the Central Board of Forestry, has charge of the work at 
Veracruz, and when it shall have been completed, similar work 
will be undertaken at other points on the coasts. 

The Central Board of Forestry has appointed a commission to 
explore the forestry resources of the Republic, and it is also en- 
gaged in compiling' statistics on the same subject. It is expected 
that additional impetus will be given this Central Board by fur- 
ther governmental legislation. 

Stock Raising. 

The raising of cattle has always been one of the most important 
industries of Mexico, and one of the least restricted by the 
Spaniards of the eighteenth century, who, by means of special 
legislation, gave encouragement to it to the extent of making it 
the favorite occupation of the inhabitants of the country. In 
earlier times cattle were of little value except for their hides, 
which formed an important item of export ; later, however, they 
were turned to better advantage, the hides being manufactured 
into leather and the tallow used for the manufacture of soap. 
During the eighteenth century sheep raising also became an im- 
portant industry in the northern and central provinces. 

The States of the northern part of the Republic are so well 
adapted to such purposes that they may be said to be immense 
cattle ranges. The excellent situation of the lands, as well as 
their generally well-watered condition, will sometime make Mex- 




120 MEXICO. 

ico one of the world's great cattle producers, as every State in 
the Republic has more or less pasturage, and the relatively easy 
accessibility to the seaports offers good opportunity for foreign 
shipments if the home supply may be already satisfied. 

Although the population of the United States has steadily in- 
creased during the past two decades, there has been a falling off 
in the proportionate number of cattle raised in the United States, 
so that cattle breeding for the market in the neighboring Re- 
public of Mexico presents attractive prospects. Considerable in- 
terest has been manifested in this direction, and the exportations, 
although small, promise to increase in number and value in the 
future. 

Mexican cattle were originally small in size, ranging between 
900 and 1,200 pounds in weight. Even this latter is considered 
in the English market as only moderate, and the suggestion has 
been made by British traders that it would be wise for Mexican 
cattle raisers to import British bulls for the purpose of breeding 
larger cattle. The Department of Promotion (Fomento) has 
taken a deep interest in this subject, and many reforms have been 
introduced to the betterment of the stock. 

Breeding and fattening of cattle is an industry which in Mexico 
may be regarded as almost entirely non-speculative. Breeders 
of beef cattle are, as a class, very well-to-do, and many of them 
are wealthy. Some of the largest fortunes of the country have 
been made from this industry. It is one that can be conducted suc- 
cessfully on a large or small scale in almost every part of Mexico. 

At the time of the Cuban war (1895-1898), when the stock- 
raising business of Cuba was almost entirely ruined, so that for 
some time after peace had been restored cattle had to be imported 
into Cuba for local consumption, great impetus was given to the 
industry in Mexico, the results of which are permanently evident. 
The attention of ranch owners was thereby drawn to the possi- 
bilities in their own country, and the activity extended ac- 
cordingly. 

The important factor to be considered is, of course, the home 
demand, which has increased owing to the gradual spread of 
prosperity among the working classes, enabling them to include 
more meat in their diet. As a result of this there has been a 
steady rise in the price of beef cattle during the last decade. The 
fact that cattle raising is an industry which involves, at first, a 
certain amount of hardship, unless one possesses a large capital, 
has saved it from the evils of overcrowding. 

In the foothills of both coasts, where pasturage is more 
luxuriant than in the northern districts, ranches can still be pur- 
chased, however, at a smaller rate than in the north, where the 
older and more extensive ranges have been located. A compara- 
tively small capital, judiciously invested in the pasture lands on 



CATTLE. 



121 



tlie foothills of Tepic. Jalisco. Michoacan. Guerrero. \"eracruz, 
Hidalgo. San Luis Pot'osi. or Tamaulipas. will maintain more 
cattle than a similar sum expended in pasture lands in Chihuahua. 
Durango. Coahuila. Zacatecas or Sonora. although the number of 
acres mav be less. 

On the Gulf slope of the eastern Cordilleras there isan im- 
mense region where the natural pasture of the foothills is prob- 
ablv as fine as any in the world. The rains of summer and the 
heaw dews in autumn and winter, even in the driest months 
(April and May") of spring, are sufficient to prevent any notable 
deterioration in the quality of tlie pasturage. Cattle of the plateau 
can be brought down for fattening and then resold at an encoura- 
ging profit. ^Moreover, what production is not immediately dis- 
posed of in local markets, may find export toward the nortli or 
across the Gulf of ^Mexico, the increasing steamship and rail- 
way facilities are of decided value in this consideration. 

The ranches on the Pacific slope, through the Territory of 
Tepic. the States of Jalisco. Michoacan, Guerrero and (southern) 
Oaxaca. are quite different in character from those of the Gulf 
coast, because on the Pacific side the dry season is much more 
rigorous than on the Atlantic side. The aggregate amount of 
rainfall is little less, but it is not so evenly distributed, so that 
greater provision has to be made for water holes, tanks or other 
means of constant water supply. There is never a scarcit}- of 
pasttirage. but unless pains are taken to insure an unfailing sup- 
ply of water well distributed over the range, it may happen that 
die pasturage in the vicinity of water holes is all eaten up. as 
the more broken character of tlie country- on the western slope 
makes it diflicult for cattle to go great distances for water. Also, 
although western ranches are accessible to the home markets, they 
are much further away from foreign markets than are those on 
the eastern slope, and consequently pasture lands do not as yet 
command a very high figure. 

Everv- State in the Republic is suitable for cattle, and ranches 
are to be'found in all of them. The greatest^ producers are Ja- 
Hsco. Chihuahua. Guanajuato. Michoacan. \ eracruz. Durango. 
Zacatecas. and Yucatan, but Sonora on the west and TamauHpas 
on the east, as well as Chiapas in the extreme south, are yearly 
advancing in the size of their flocks and herds. In 1902 the 
estimate of live stock in ^Mexico was given in the following 
figures : 

Cattle 5.30O.0aT 

Horses SZlUTO 

Mules 340.LX)0 

\sses 298.000 

Sheep 3.450.aiO 

Goats 4,240.000 

Hoss 640.000 




Pi 



CATTLE MINING. 



123 



the value given being about $124,000,000. Actual statistics of 
national totals of live stock have not been collected for the year 
1910, but encouraging progress has been noted in all branches 
of this branch of agriculture. The best breeds of cattle have 
been introduced, and the herds have increased in all parts of the 
country. Horses are of better grade than they were, and so 
abundant has the number become that the native stock now sup- 
plies the regular army, and steady improvement is marked in all 
classes. Mules and asses are raised in great numbers also. 

Sheep and goat raising is a branch as well understood as and 
even more generallly pursued than cattle-breeding. There are 
probably not fewer than 5,000,000 sheep in the country, exclusive 
of several millions of goats. The principal sheep-raising States 
are Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Coahuila, Durango, Hidalgo, 
Mexico, Michoacan, Nuevo Leon, Puebla and Tamauhpas. It has 
been found from experience that sheep thrive best on the great 
central plateau, where they are practically free from disease and 
from predatory animals. Every year a fair number of Merino 
rams are imported and the stock is thereby well maintained. The 
native and unimproved breeds die out rapidly, and the amount of 
wool which they vield diminishes unless the standard is kept up. 
The wool produced is somewhat coarse, not equal to the best in 
the United States and elsewhere, and it could be improved, as 
farmers are endeavoring to do. 

Hog raising is general throughout the Republic. Every Indian 
has his family of pigs, which to a large extent forage for them- 
selves, although in many instances, where corn is abundant and 
transportation restricted, grain is fed to them. In the State of 
Tamaulipas, chiefly, but in many others, also, pig breeding has 
assumed commercial importance, and packing houses have been 
established. 

Mining.* 

Nature has richly endowed Mexico with resources well nigh 
countless, but in the bestowal of mineral wealth she has been 
most lavish. Beneath the surface of that volcanic ridge, raised be- 
tween two great bodies of water, lie buried treasures incompara- 
ble, and although innumerable mining enterprises have for nearly 
four hundred years exploited the metal-bearing regions and have 
extracted fabulous quantities of precious metals, by far the 
greater part is yet to be laid bare. 

At the beginning of the last century Humboldt estimated the 
mines in Mexico to number 3,000. In recent years hardly that 
many have been worked, but the extension of the railroads and 
the bringing into closer communication of remote sections of 

*An abstract of the Mining Law is given in the Appendix, page 362. 



SILVER. 



125 



the country have brought about a revival of the interest in this 
noted industry. 

The great mining region runs from the northwest to the south- 
east, following the direction of the Sierra Madre cordillera, ex- 
tending from Sonora to the south of Oaxaca, a distance of about 
2,574 kilometers (1,599 miles). The immense parallelogram this 
region forms has a width of about 402 kilometers (250 miles). 

The richest mines have been discovered on the western slope 
of the Cordilleras at an elevation of about 915 to 2,440 meters 
(3,000 to 8,000 feet) above sea level. Most of the historical 
mines are situated here, having been opened by the Spaniards in 
1526 and worked until 1700, with little formality and less science. 
The English first undertook mining operations in 1824. The 
wealth of "New Spain" became proverbial, but even with the 
activity of the centuries Mexico to-day offers one of the most 
inviting fields to the investor and to the scientifically equipped 
mining engineer. 

Under each State will be given its principal mineral charac- 
teristics, but the relative importance of the metals may be de- 
scribed as follows : 

Silver. Much of the silver ore found in Mexico is mixed in 
considerable proportion with gold, copper or lead, but wherever 
the silver is the metal for which the mine is chiefly worked, its 
output is reckoned with particular reference to the silver con- 
stituent. The principal silver camps of the Republic are in the 
States of Hidalgo, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, 
Guerrero and San Luis Potosi. Pachuca, Mexico, Puebla, More- 
los, Queretaro, Oaxaca, Jalisco, Durango, and Sonora also are 
States in which silver mines are worked. The Territory of 
Lower California produces some silver, and as a matter of fact 
practically every region in the Republic shows some silver de- 
posits, although they may not be commercially profitable. 

The large silver production of the country comes principally 
from low-grade ore, running perhaps as high as 1,000 grams 
(32.15 troy oz.) in silver, but much that is treated contains only 
from 400 to 800 grams (12.86 to 25.7 troy oz.) per ton. Some of 
the mines in Mexico produce rich ore, 7 to 20 kg. (18.75 to 53.58 
troy pounds) per ton, but that is the exception. The greater 
part of the gold production is obtained in connection with the 
silver output. 

There are several kinds of silver ores taken from the mines. 
Some of the varieties are plata blanca (white silver), which is 
the rarest and best; plata verde (green silver), united with cop- 
per; bronces (bronzes, united with iron) ; plomosos (lead), a very 
soft ore, united with lead; caliches (chalk), united with a chalky 
substance greatly resembling the common white Hmestone, but 
which is rich in silver and easily worked. Previous to the tariff 




r^ O 






-I 



hj 



hj 



ffi 




1-t^ MEXICO. 

bill of 1890 silver-bearing lead ore was brought from Mexico 
into the United States for reduction, but the heavy duty put on 
such ores by this and later bills caused companies in the latter 
country to establish smelters in Mexico which have called for the 
investment of millions of dollars in the industry. 

For the reduction of ore in Mexico two processes are most in 
vogue — the patio and the Hxiviation processes. 

The patio process, invented by Bartolome de Medina in Pa- 
chuca. State of Hidalgo, consists of amalgamation with quick- 
silver. The system of treatment is to bring the ores from the 
mines in large pieces, when it is placed in a covered box and 
pounded to fragments by immense crushers. These small pieces 
fall upon a sieve, those which are too large to pass being sent back 
to the crushers, several of which are in a line working alternately. 
The ore then passes from the mortars (mortcros) to the mills 
(tahonas), which consist of round vats placed on a level with the 
floor. Here the ore is ground into fine dust by means of heavy 
and hard granite stones, oblong in shape and connected with a 
revolving shaft operated by the best available power. 

By the gradual addition of water during this process of pul- 
verization a muddy mass is formed, which at the proper time is 
thrown into the patio (yard) having a hard cement or stone 
floor ; on this the mud is treated by the addition of quicksilver 
and strong brine called caldo. It is thus left in the open air 
exposed to the heat of the sun — hence the term patio process — 
for some days, being stirred every day by men and animals tramp- 
ing through it until the quicksilver and salt are well incorporated 
to the ore. This substance is called torta de lama (cake of 
mud) ; when mixed the mud is carried to the lavadero (washing 
place) and placed in vats to be washed, leaving in the vats what 
is called plata pina, silver amalgamated with mercury. This is 
placed in bags, the mercury extracted by heavy pressure, and the 
silver finally purified by heat. There are modifications of this 
method, adopted for reasons of expediency or because of im- 
provements introduced by modern science. 

The Hxiviation process implies the crushing of the rock dry, 
and its passage through fine-meshed screens. It is then roasted 
in furnaces with salt, washed, and treated with a solution of 
hyposulphate of soda. The silver carried by this solution is 
precipitated by calcium sulphide, this precipitate is dried and 
roasted and the resultant metal finally melted into bars. 

Notwithstanding the drop in the price of silver, the silver pro- 
duction of Mexico has increased of late years, but it must be 
admitted that this is largely due to the mining and treatment of 
gold-silver ores, and also to the fact that the older camps are 
those mainly producing, w^hile the many mills in them are using 
modern machinery and treating large tonnages. 



\M) MKXICO. 

Gold. Mexico is destined to become one of the largest pro- 
ducers of gold in the world. That the country hitherto has not 
ranked high in the amount of this metal is due to the fact that 
heretofore the mining of gold has been merely an incident in the 
extraction of silver, and when the amount of gold was small it 
was ignored ; but since the value of gold has appreciated to so 
great a degree the mining of the metal has assumed much larger 
proportions. 

The gold deposits of the Republic may be conveniently divided 
into four classes: (1) alluvial deposits; (2) gold-bearing veins 
proper; (3) gold-silver veins; and (4) silver-gold-copper veins. 

Gold placers occur in Alamo and Triunfo, Lower California, 
in the Altar and Hermosillo districts of Sonora, in the Fuerte 
district of Sinaloa, at El Oro and Inde, Durango, at Placeres del 
Oro and along the Rio del Oro, in the Bravos district, Guerrero, 
and in other parts of Mexico, although only few are of economic 
value. 

Gold-bearing veins proper are found in the States of Sonora, 
Sinaloa, Chihuahua and Oaxaca, and in the Territory of Lower 
California. The last auriferous zone may be regarded as the 
southern continuation of the California gold belt, while the veins 
of Sonora appear to be of the same type as those of Arizona. 
The character of the principal gold-bearing veins of Lower Cali- 
fornia is granite, sometimes traversed by diorite dykes. The 
gold occurs free, or as auriferous pyrite, sometimes associated 
with copper sulphide, in quartz. Alamo is the best-known region. 
In Sonora there are rich gold-quartz veins, and other forma- 
tions in which the metal is found. In Chihuahua are limestone 
deposits with gold, generally associated with manganese ore and 
carrying some silver, and one mine at least contains high-grade 
gold ore, together with silver, lead and zinc. Sinaloa has quartz 
lodes containing free gold, and some auriferous pyrite in quartz 
occurs in the same State, the country being eruptive. Im Michoa- 
can there is a low-grade auriferous deposit in cretaceous schist, 
near an eruptive. In Oaxaca gold is found in gneiss in a well- 
developed mine, average 13 dwts. (20 grams) gold per ton; there 
is also gold-bearing quartz w^ith some silver, gold in magnetite, at 
the contact between gneiss and limestone, although near the Hme- 
stone walls the ores are silver-lead-gold ; native gold is found in 
flat veins of quartz impregnated with iron ores. In Zacatecas 
there is a group of gold-bearing veins carrying a few ounces 
of silver to the ton, and limestone with gold. In Jalisco and the 
Territory of Tepic are gold mines, those in the former showing 
quartz-veins carrying free gold associated with galena. 

Gold-silver veins are found in Lower California, in Sonora, 
Sinaloa, Durango. Chihuahua, Michoacan, Guerrero, Mexico, 
C)axaca. Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Queretaro and the Territory of 



GOLD. 



131 



Tepic. There are reefs and veins of quartz, in some of which 
the gold is 50% to 60% of the value of the ore. In other mines 
hematite is present, or there are masses of altered pyrites with 
gold and silver in about equal proportions. In several mines the 
gold is the most important constituent, while in others the gold 
is of secondary or accidental origin. 

Gold-copper mines are found in the Territory of Lower Cali- 
fornia and in the State of Sonora. Gold-silver-copper veins oc- 
cur in Sinaloa, and similar deposits, with lead, are in Zacatecas. 
Copper-gold veins are found in Puebla, Veracruz, Chiapas, San 
Luis Potosi and Guerrero. 

The production of gold in Mexico is steadily increasing, due 
partly to the discovery of new mines, but mainly to the further 
application of the cyanide process to the treatment of gold-silver 




132 MEXICO. • 

ores and to the improvements in that process. The demand for 
the precious metal having stimulated the activity of the mining 
interests of the Republic, the production has advanced so much 
that Mexico now ranks fifth among the gold-producing countries 
of the world. 

Copper. The Territory of Lower California is the largest 
producer of copper in the Republic. Copper-bearing veins occur 
also in the islands of San Jose and Carmen, in the Gulf of 
California ofif the coast of that peninsula. The large ore-bodies 
in Sonora are in crushed porphyry. The whole region about 
Cananea is a copper deposit. In the Alamos district copper 
occurs with silver-lead ores, while elsewhere in the State copper 
is found associated with high-grade silver values. In Sinaloa 
copper deposits are being opened up, although there are old 
mines in existence, one averaging 4 per cent copper, with gold 
and silver values. In Durango copper occurs with silver-lead 
sulphides. In Chihuahua there is a group of mines containing 
chalcopyrite and copper carbonates, but deposits occur in other 
parts of the State. Coahuila has large copper resources where 
the metal occurs, impregnating porphyritic breccia at the contact 
with limestone. Many deposits are not worked at present owing 
to the low proportion of copper contained in them. In Tamaulipas 
copper occurs in a zone of diorite-porphyry and limestone ; the 
ore is chalcopyrite associated with pyrite as inclusions in silicates, 
or as veinlets and coatings in cavities, but being low grade they 
are idle. In Zacatecas mines are worked for lead, silver and 
gold, as is also the case in Aguascalientes. Sometimes the copper 
ores are confined to the upper levels, giving place to galena, 
blende, etc., below. In San Luis Potosi copper ore occurs asso- 
ciated with zinc and silver. In Michoacan there are irregular 
deposits of chalcopyrite, with some bornite chalcocite and tetra- 
hedrite, in granite. The low-grade ores are not worked, as yet. 
In Mexico (State) are deposits of native copper; in Hidalgo 
copper with silver. Puebla, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Tlax- 
cala, Colima, and Chiapas give warrantable evidence of copper 
deposits. With the immense output of copper which has char- 
acterized the Republic during recent years, Mexico is now second 
only to the United States in the world's production of that 
metal. 

Lead. Lead in the form of galena (sulphide) is a common 
constituent of the silver-bearing veins of Mexico, which is often 
so high that the ore may then be regarded as an ore of silver. 
Large deposits of galena and lead carbonates also occur, usually 
with low silver values. As a rule, galena, when coarse grained. 
is low in silver, and when fine grained, high in silver, but both 
varieties may occur in the same deposit. The chief producing 
camps are in Durango, Chihuahua and Coahuila. Silver-lean 



LEAD AND IRON. 



133 



ores with copper are found in Sonora, and in San Luis Potosi 
cerussite and galena (secondary) occur in limestone or on the 
contact between limestone and andesite. In Guanajuato galena 
is found high in silver. In Zacatecas numerous lead mines are 
worked, and in one at least when the ore is smelted it averages 
35% lead. There is also argentiferous lead with gold and copper 
ores. In Nuevo Leon important silver-lead and silver-lead-zinc 
mines have been located. Hidalgo, Guerrero, Tamaulipas, Ja- 
lisco, Oueretaro, Puebla, Colima, Morelos, Tlaxcala, Oaxaca, 
Aguascalientes and the State of Mexico, all have well-defined lead 
deposits, many of them profitably worked. The main output of 
lead in the Republic comes from the central plateau country, 
where the great camps of Sierra Mojada, Almaloya, Niaca and 
Santa Eulalia are situated. The lead production from the nu- 
merous mines in the northeastern States is large, the ore going 
principally to the smelters in Monterrey. Many lead ores, as has 
been said, carry silver and are available for that reason. The 
lead, as bullion, is mostly shipped to the United States for re- 
fining. Mexico ranks third in the production of lead, being ex- 
ceeded in the quantity produced by the United States and Spain. 
Iron. The only deposits of iron-ore mined on a large scale 
are those of the northern part of Coahuila, which supply the 
Monterrey (Nuevo Leon) foundries, but in the western part of 
that State there are iron deposits. Besides the one mentioned, 
foundries are active in the State of Hidalgo, and one on the 
border of the States of JaHsco and Guanajuato. Near Todos 
Santos, Territory of Lower California, large iron-ore deposits 
are known, and in Sonora workable beds of hematite of the Up- 
per Triassic age have been located. Iron in one form or another 
exists in Michoacan, Oaxaca, and in various parts of the Isthmus 
of Tehuantepec; in Queretaro, Jahsco, Puebla, Guerrero, Hi- 
dalgo, Mexico, Veracruz, and Colima. Hence, iron-ores are 
widely distributed in the Republic, and some of the deposits are 
of large dimensions. The famous iron mountain near the city of 
Durango, in the State of the same name, was discovered in 1552 
by Vasquez del Mercado, from whom it receives the name Cerro 
de Mercado. This hill {cerro) is 5,000 feet (1,524 meters) long, 
from 300 to 400 feet (91 to 122 meters) in height, and of varia- 
ble width, the average being about 1,100 feet (336 meters). 
According to good authority the mineralized portion of the Cerro 
de Mercado is in the form of a very powerful rhyolite dyke. The 
ore is hematite in granular compact masses of enormous dimen- 
sions, marked by contraction-planes. Large octahedral crystals 
of martite and well-formed crystals of apatite are often present 
on the faces of separation of the different fragments. Both Uie 
specular and micaceous varieties of hematite occur in Httle veins, 
either in the compact ore, or more frequently enclosed in the 



ZINC AND MERCURY. 135 

rhyoHte. Red ochre is found here and there in veins up to one 
meter {3.28 feet) thick. The ore is associated with chalcedony — 
forming a network of httle veins crossing the hematite in all 
directions and concentrated in large isolated masses or cementing 
fragments of hematite — and apatite (as "asparagus stone"), 
nearly always crystallized alone or with iron oxide, and also form- 
ing little veins and masses. The mountain is by no means all 
iron ore as was at one time supposed, but is said to range from 
60% to 70% pure ore. x\t the base are immense beds of com- 
pact rhyolite ; farther up the sides of the mountain the deposit 
consists of fragments of the same eruptive ; still higher are frag- 
ments of rhyolite and hematite mixed together; but at and near 
the top the whole deposit is covered entirely by fragments of 
iron-ore. This ore has a specific gravity of 4.658, and the esti- 
mated weight of the mass is 600,000,000 tons, worth about 5,000 
millions of dollars. Lower California and Sweden possess simi- 
lar deposits. The product is to some extent utilized by a smelter 
in the vicinity. Although there is abundant iron in the Republic, 
Mexico does not rank high in the production totals of the world. 

Zinc. The States of Chihuahua and Sinaloa supply the greater 
portion of Mexico's output of zinc, this metal ranking sixth in the 
list of exports of metals from the Republic. The ^Mexican ore 
carries a desirable percentage of calamines, wanted in the great 
American mines as a necessary adjunct to the smelting processes 
there. Chihuahua is actually the chief center of the industry; 
in the better developed districts the ores are carbonates, with 
some zinc silicates, and others are characteristically sulphide. 
About all of the ore mined in Mexico has been shipped abroad, 
either to the United States or to Europe, but there is great 
probability that smelting plants will be erected near to the mines, 
so that the metal itself may be produced within the country. 
There were in 1909 only 95 zinc mining properties, basing the 
estimate upon taxes paid. 

Quicksilver. Although Mexico holds the fifth position in the 
production of quicksilver in the world, it fails in producing 
enough to supply the home market. Prior to the introduction 
of the cyanide process for the treatment of silver ores the im- 
portation of quicksilver, known in Spanish as azoguc, was heavy, 
and the necessity for having this metal for the patio process was 
so great that the Government, both Federal and State, removed 
all taxes on quicksilver mining and provided for the free admis- 
sion of that metal into the country. This exemption is in force 
to-day. and is one of the causes stimulating the new develop- 
ments in the quicksilver districts of Mexico. The falling off 
of production in other parts of the world has turned attention 
to the ]\Iexican districts, and the prospect of activity in quick- 
silver mining in the Republic is very good. Quicksilver or mer- 



136 .MEXICO. 

ciuy ha> a fairly wide distribution in Mexico, but exploitation 
dcj>osits appear to be few in number. The chief occurrences are 
in the States of San Luis Potosi, Guerrero, Queretaro and Jalisco. 
Cinnabar (mercury sulphide) occurs in Sonora, and the deposit 
has been worked. In Durango, quicksilver, enclosed in rhyolite, 
older than the neighljoring basalt, is found. Guanajuato has cin- 
nabar, and in San Luis Potosi is the first mine in the Republic 
to extract 2,000 quintals (quintal=:4 arrohas, or 46.02 kilo- 
grams, or 101.44 pounds avoirdupois) of mercury and gain the 
premium of 25,000 pesos offered by the Government in 1843. 
This State has also the richest mine in the Republic (the Giiada- 
liipaiia), the formation of which consists of highly folded cal- 
careous slates or marls. The ore is cinnabar impregnated with 
marls, or associated with calcite and finely crystallized gypsum. 
The average of the output is at 10% quicksilver, but with some 
loss in treatment. In Michoacan there are old workings, evi- 
dently of a low-grade ore, samples yielding only moderate quan- 
tities of the metal. Near Cuernavaca, State of Mexico, are 
deposits of cinnabar, as veins or irregular masses. The State 
of Jalisco shows quicksilver, sometimes in strings of pockets. 
This resume by no means exhausts the report of the existence of 
mercury, and undoubtedly more careful study of the resources 
of the country in this regard, now that the metal is becoming so 
much in demand. In 1909 the quicksilver of Mexico came prin- 
cipally from the deposits in the States of Guerrero and San Luis 
Potosi. Here the ore contains about 2.1 per cent of mercury, 
but on the average it is less. "In general, both the mining and 
reduction of quicksilver ores in Mexico have been conducted on 
a small scale, and owing to wasteful metallurgical processes only 
high-grade ore has been available, but inasmuch as ores contain- 
ing very low quantities of mercury are profitably treated in Eu- 
rope and California, the Mexican deposits formerly neglected 
are now becoming attractive. During the Spanish regime the 
production of quicksilver was directly encouraged, and for a 
time controlled by the Government m the interests of the silver 
miners who used it in the patio process. Then the supply de- 
creased owing to disturbed political conditions, and Mexico af- 
forded a good market for California quicksilver. Now, how- 
ever, the reduced demand arising from the substitution of cyani- 
dation for the patio process and the resumption of operations in 
several of the quicksilver localities of the country has changed 
trade conditions, and Mexico is likely henceforth to be a consid- 
erable producer of the metal, and even an exporter rather than an 
importer." 

Tin. Deposits of tin have been found in many parts of Mex- 
ico, in the States of Durango, San Luis Potosi, Guanajuato, 



PETROLEUM AND ASPHALT. 137 

Jalisco, Sonora, Queretaro, Aguascalientes and Coahuila. These 
have not as yet proved of much economical value, however. _ 

Antimony. After China and France (and Algeria), Mexico^ 
has good rank as a producer of antimony. Deposits are known 
to exist in the States of Sonora, Zacatecas, Mexico Oaxaca, Hi- 
dalgo, Queretaro and San Luis Potosi. Most of the product 
comes from the latter States, a large smelter being m operation 
in San Luis Potosi. r^ . r t 

■ Manganese. This metal is found in the Territory of Lower 
California, in the States of Puebla, Guerrero, Hidalgo Mexico, 
Zacatecas, and Durango. One deposit in the State of Mexico, 
easily mined, carries about 44% of manganese, but owing to 
transportation difficulties Mexican manganese mines are but little 
worked, as there is no local consumption and the product has to 
be shipped to the United States or Europe. . 

Graphite is now one of the minerals well exploited m Mexico. 
Up to a few years ago everv American pencil manufacturer had 
to import graphite from Bohemia or Bavaria. A large deposit 
of amorphous graphite has been discovered and worked in So- 
nora which proves of excellent quality for pencil making and 
other purposes, so that the American pencil trade, and even some 
European, is now supplied from _ this source. Mexico ranks 
seventh in the production of graphite. 

Rare metals are quite general in Mexico. Vanadium espe- 
cially as vanadinite. was discovered in the early part of the last 
century in lead-bearing veins in Hidalgo. It occurs also in San 
Luis Potosi, Chihuahua, Zacatecas and Guerrero. Bismuth ot 
a hicrh crrade comes from Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Queretaro, 
Guanajuato, Zacatecas and Durango. Selenium is reported m 
various places. No doubt can exist concerning the wealth ot 
Mexico even in such metals as nickel, cobalt, molybdenum and 
others, but careful study will be needed to develop their pos- 
sibilities. . , ., , f T\T • A 

Petroleum and Asphalt. The ancient builders of Mexico used 
bitumen and asphalt as a cement in the construction of their 
temples and burned petroleum before their sacred altars l^or 
ages a natural oil spring, measuring many feet in circumference 
and without a clear outlet of any kind, has been known to exist 
near the Rio Soto la Marina, but its flow was wasted by con- 
tinual evaporation as the oil seeped to the surface. The deposits 
of asphalt and liquid petroleum abound m many parts of the 
Republic but they have not, until recently, been worked to any 
great extent. The entire Atlantic coast of the country shows 
traces of oil and asphaltum, which there goes by the name of 
chapapote. In the northern part of this region, between the foot- 
hills and the sea, there are springs { chap apot eras) and deposits 



13(S mi: XT CO. 

i)f these substances. Systematic exploration of these Mexican 
oil fields has extended over a short period, beginning in the first 
years of the century, and i)ractical operations have been confined 
chiefly to the territory above specified. It must be mentioned, 
however, that mineral oils have been found in many other lo- 
calities. princi]:)ally in the States of Oaxaca and Michoacan. 

All along the Gulf coastal plain, as far south as Campeche, 
there are indications of oil, derived from rocks of various ages. 
In the neighborhood of Tampico and of Coatzacoalcos ( Puerto 
Mexico), however, develo])mcnt has been most extended. Lying 
67 miles (107 kilometers) from Tampico, southward, and 10 
miles ( 16 kilometers) from the Gulf, is the famous Dos liocas 
well, pronounced b}' experts one of the greatest in the history of 
the oil industry. Oil was struck at a depth of 1,800 feet 
(549 meters) on July 4. 1908, but it immediately caught fire and 
burned for 57 days, during which time it has been estimated that 
10,000,000 barrels of oil were consumed. Many thousands of 
acres of petroliferous lands in this very promising region have 
been secured by active oil development companies, and pipe lines 
to Tampico and Tuxpam on the Gulf have been constructed. 
The development of the oil fields in this section has an important 
effect on the entire Republic. The volume of business at the 
port of Tampico is greatly increased, and the entire neighborhood 
is permanently advanced by the activities caused thereby. The 
products of the oil fields furnish fuel, in part, at least, for the 
railway systems of the country, and as a cheap fuel for manu- 
facturing, heating, lighting and domestic purposes. In the State of 
A'eracruz, about 55 miles (88 kilometers) south of Tuxpam, oil 
fields of trustworthy nature have been opened, and the area of 
activity here is increasing. Further south, on the Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec, in the basin of the San Juan, Coatzacoalcos and 
Tancochapa Rivers, numerous indications have been met, the con- 
dition of this field resembling those of Beaumont, in Texas, more 
especially in regard to the presence of gypsum and rock salt below 
the oil-bearing limestone. Actual development of a very practical 
character has taken place on the Isthmus itself, in the basin of the 
Coachapa River, a tributary of the Coatzacoalcos River. Oil 
from here is pumped through a pipe line to a refinery in Mina- 
titlan, 20 miles (32 kilometers) above Puerto Mexico (Coatza- 
coalcos), to which point a branch railway connects with the 
the Tehuantepec National Railway, so that both terminal ports, 
Salina Cruz and Puerto Mexico, where tank steamers can be 
directly supplied, are accessible. In the State of Tabasco indica- 
tions of oil are very plain, and this field resembles in some re- 
spects that of southern Louisiana. In the State of Chiapas, too, 
oil is known to exist. 



PETROLEUM AND COAL. 



139 



Generally speaking, Mexican petroleum is very heavy^ in the 
northern portion of the fields, ranging in gravity from 10° to 14° 
Baume at Ebano, and gradually, though irregularly, becoming 
lighter and consequently more valuable southwards. Thus the 
oil of the San Cristobal field (Isthmus of Tehuantepec) varies 
from 26° to 30° Baume, while in the field at Frontera (Tabasco) 
it varies from 32° to 43° Baume. The heavy oils of Ebano give 
about one per cent of gasoline and ten per cent of illuminating 
oil, but by the cracking process this yield can be increased. In 
the Minatitlan region the oil yields naturally 11 per cent of 
gasoline and 25 to 27 per cent of illuminating oil of excellent 
quality, and a considerable quantity of gas oil and lubricating 
oil. The oil from the Frontera region of Tabasco resembles the 
Pennsylvania oil in character and the products which result from 
refining. The amount of sulphur in Mexican oil is high, ranging 
from 4 per cent to 5 per cent in the Ebano region, and approxi- 
mately 3 per cent in the San Cristobal field. 

The production of petroleum in Mexico, although not yet 
accurately measured, owing to the lack of complete statistics, 
may be estimated at approximately 3,000,000 barrels in 1909 
(over 90,000,000 gallons), which is refined within the country. 
This does not meet the demand in the Republic, as 27,554,581 
gallons of crude oil were imported at the same time, and, although 
it has been demonstrated that iNIexico is capable of developing 
a large supply of oil, ultimately, perhaps, sufficient for home 
demands, it is safe to say that at present all the oil in sight will 
not as yet meet that need. Already native oil has been success- 
fully used on locomotives of the contiguous railways, on steamers 
plying on both the oceans, and in many industrial power plants. 
Recently, too, a shipment of 30,000 barrels of asphalt was made 
from Puerto Mexico (Coatzacoalcos) to Canada. 

Coal. Mexican geologists affirmed for many years that no 
mineral coal existed in the country. About the year 1881, how- 
ever, reports from several parts of the Republic claimed that 
anthracite coal had been discovered, and specimens of what was 
supposed to be this mineral were sent to the National College of 
Engineers to be assayed. Much enthusiasm was aroused by these 
reports, and the Department of Promotion (Fomcnto) appointed 
scientific commissions to visit the alleged coal localities and report 
thereon. The labors of these commissions proved that coal did 
exist, assaying from 41 to 92 per cent, the latter in the State of 
Sonora. It was to this coal that General Rosecrans gave the 
name of black gold. The Commissions discovered and reported 
on anthracite deposits in Sonora, Michoacan, Veracruz, Guerrero. 
Oaxaca, Puebla, and otlier States. 



140 MEXICO. 

The interest thus created led to the formation of many com- 
panies, and investors looked forward to the amassing of fortunes 
from collieries, but the results were disappointing. The enthu- 
siasm was succeeded by a state of depression and inactivity on 
the discovery that the seams of coal brought to light were poor 
and tliat the early rumors had been exaggerated. Want of means 
of communication between the deposits and the markets also had 
much to do with this depression, which continued until profitable 
deposits were unearthed in Coahuila. Generally speaking, these 
were in the cretaceous formation and are divided into upper and 
lower beds. The product of these fields has been used to supply 
coke for the use of smelters in several parts of the country, and 
some coal has been shipped to the United States through the port 
of Ciudad Porfirio Diaz (Piedras Negras). Throughout this 
region the coal measures are considerably disturbed by faults and 
foldings, and the seams are irregular in width, having many 
barren areas between them. 

Along the Gulf of California, extending north to the Arizona 
line, and in the State of Sonora, coal was found and used by 
local silver smelters as early as 1870. In 1890 an English com- 
pany secured a concession of 4,000,000 acres of land in this belt, 
but it was forfeited, and a Mexican company was organized to 
carry on the work. Up to 1890 some 59 coal mines had been 
opened in the State of Puebla, but poor facilities for transporta- 
tion, difficulties encountered in mining, and the rather poor qual- 
ity of the coal conspired to prevent great activity, although the 
Government of the State was desirous of fostering the industry. 
Coal fields have been discovered in the State of Nuevo Leon, 
but no continuous work has resulted from them. As long ago 
as 1875, 200 tons of coal (lignite) were shipped to New York 
from the Cristo mine at Tempoal (Tamaulipas), but nothing 
resulted from the experiment. 

It may be added that coal occurs also in the States of Durango, 
Zacatecas, Hidalgo, Guerrero, San Luis Potosi, Queretaro, Co- 
lima, Tlaxcala, Jalisco, Morelos, Michoacan, Tabasco and Vera- 
cruz, but the beds are of little or no importance. The only coal 
deposits commercially exploited in Mexico at the present time 
are in the State of Coahuila. 

There are three developed coal basins in this State, all trav- 
ersed by the Mexican International Railroad, an integral part of 
the National Railways of Mexico. These are (1) Fuente basin, 
(2) Sabinas basin, and (3) Las Esperanzas basin, situated, re- 
spectively, 7, 117 and 145 kilometers (4.3, 72.7 , and 90 miles) 
south of the Rio Grande, forming the Texas border between 
Eagle Pass and Ciudad Porfirio Diaz. 

The Fuente basin has an area of 5,000 hectares (12,350 acres) 



COAL. 141 

and is parallel to a similar deposit worked at Eagle Pass and 
Laredo. Analyses show the following proportions: 

Ftienie. Laredo. Eagle Pass. 

Moisture 1.40 3.20 3.49 

Volatile matter 39.40 37.35 36.87 

Carbon 40.20 39.90 34.00 

Ash 19.00 25.55 25.64 

Owing to the great amount of volatile matter, this Fuente coal 
is especially valuable for roasting and gas manufacture, and has 
sufficient carbon for steam generation. 

The Sabinas basin has an area of 137,500 hectares (about 
400,000 acres), directed northwest to southeast. It is much 
broken up by faults, and workable areas rarely exceeding 500 
hectares (1,235 acres) in a single body, and being separated by 
great distances of thin or impure coal. Under the most favora- 
ble circumstances the coal is no more than 1.52 meters (5 feet) 
thick, and is divided into two seams by a layer of shale from 
15 to 30 centimeters (6 to 12 inches) wide. The lower seam is 
usually clean, but the upper is often mixed with ribbons of car- 
bonaceous slate. Development began in 1884, when a shaft was 
sunk not far from the Sabinas River. 

The Esperanzas basin has a coal the quality of which is similar 
to, but the thickness double, that of the Sabinas basin, while the 
faults are not so extensive nor the dislocation so great. The 
area is 137,500 hectares (35 kilometers long by 5 kilometers 
wide, about 400,000 acres), the principal workings being in the 
southern part. In the eastern part the coal is thicker but not so 
regular or so pure. Excepting that from West Virginia, this is 
more than equal to American coal in heat units, and yields nut, 
pea and buckwheat coal ; it furnishes good fuel for Mexican 
steam users. 

The bituminous coal field in Coahuila is that in which nearly all 
the operating coal is mined. The coal produced here is of the 
coking grade, and coke made on the spot finds a ready market 
in the Republic. 

Mexico consumes about 4,500,CX)0 tons of coal and about 
2,000,000 tons of coke annually. As the total output of the 
country is less than 1,000,(X)0 tons each year, consumers are de- 
pendent on the United States and Europe for the remainder 
of their fuel supply. It is claimed, however, that at the present 
rate of development of the coal industry in Mexico it will be 
only a few years more until it will be unnecessary to import coal 
at all. 

Peat in considerable quantities has been discovered and utilized 
with both commercial and scientific success, especially for the 
. production of gas. A very large deposit is located near the City 
of Mexico. 



14. 



MEXICO. 



The total mineral output of Mexico in the liscal year 191)9-10 was 

158,965.832.86 pesos; an increase of 9.017,832.86 /^csos over the previous 
3'ear. 

The following tables show the production of the leading mineral sub- 
stances : 

Mexican 

1909-1910. Currency. 

Gold 48.428.c^l.71 

Silver 76,405.754.15 

Copper 26,172,214.(J0 

Lead 6,808,465.00 

2.'inc 1.150,558.00 

Iron (estimate) 1,200,000.00 

Coal (estimate) 4,400,000.00 

Mineral Oil (estimate) 2,80<1,000.00 

The quantity of gold produced in Mexico in the fiscal year 1909-1910 
was 36,222 kilograms or 1,188,537 oz. troy and of silver 2,257,363 kilo- 
grams or 72,574,220 oz. troy. 

The following table shows in Mexican currency the value of the pro- 
duction of gold and silver in Mexico since 1877-1878: 

Gold. Silver. Gold and Silver. 

IS77-7S 1.473,912.32 24,836,903.02 26,310,815.34 

1878-79 1,739,764.98 25,135,264.00 26,875,028.98 

1879-80 1,859,506.02 27,555,626.99 29,415,133.01 

1880-81 1,999,152.34 29,234,398.00 31,233.550.34 

1881-82 1,848,186.05 29,239,077.98 31,087,264.03 

1882-83 1,886,513.95 29,568,576.99 31,455,090.94 

1883-84 2,083,025.46 31,695,841.00 33,778,866.46 

1884-85 1,804,668.82 33,226,211.02 35,030,879.84 

1885-86 1,298,988.75 34,208,214.02 35,507,202.77 

1886-87 1,348,603.30 37,534,103.99 38,882,707.29 

1887-88 1,311,514.05 39,367,982.98 40,679.497.03 

1888-89 1,351,223.29 41,347,626.00 42,698,849.29 

1889-90 1,383.655.21 39,156,687.00 40,540,342.21 

1890-91 1,817,546.12 41,874,411.01 43,691,957.13 

1891-92 2,121,426.70 47,096,156.01 49.217,582.71 

1892-93 2,506,907.07 55,245,434.00 57,752,341.07 

1893-94 2,456,989.86 58,210,149.98 60,667,139.84 

1894-95 9,366,139.25 58,204,085.00 67,570,224.25 

1895-96 12,012,395.30 61,003.672.02 73,016,067.32 

1896-97 13,544,460.81 63,689,112.00 77,233,572.81 

1897-98 14,971,835.90 70,149,605.95 85,121,441.85 

1898-99 18,450,885.87 72,498,722.98 90,949,608.85 

1899-(XT 15,444,666.72 70.218,914.02 85.663,580.74 

1900-01 18.413,380.63 74,326,406.01 92,739,786.64 

1901-02 19,607,966.98 72,530,982.98 92,138.949.96 

1902-03 19.872,147.65 82,808.782.99 102,680,930.64 

1903-04 22,775,815.06 82,377,546.01 105,153,361,07 

1904-05 28,407,312.98 79,047,147.98 107,454,460 96 

1905-06 36,409,368.06 75.605,605.27 112,014,973.33 

1906-07 36,563,898.24 77,088,827.00 113,652,725 24 

1907-08 40,527,185.27 85,366,904.06 125,894,089.33 

1908-09 44.881.620.92 77,076,097.16 121,957,718.08 

1909-10 48,295,508.38 76.371,884.15 124,667,392 53 



429,836,172.31 



1,802,896,959.57 



2,232733.131. 



MINING PROPERTIES. 143 

The number of mining properties on which taxes were being paid at 
the close of the fiscal year 1909-1910, the substance mined, and the number 
of claims of one hectare each embraced in said properties, are shown in 
the following statement : 

No. of No. of Claims 
Substances Mined. Properties. in Hectares. 

Gold 1,871 24,548.45 

Gold and silver 9,425 107,292.35 

Silver 5,968 55',109!86 

Gold, silver and copper 3,213 82,928.86 

Gold, silver and lead 1,874 28,254.94 

Gold and copper 363 5',074J4 

Silver and copper 1,207 20,291.37 

Silver, copper and lead 425 7,266 99 

Silver and lead 4,251 5li805.'57 

Silver and manganese 4 61.00 

Silver and mercury 7 71.58 

Antimony 112 2,039^66 

Sulphur 78 2,065.81 

Bismuth 1 24.00 

Copper 1,285 30,484.07 

Copper and iron 212 5,345.10 

Copper and lead 28 533.29 

Tin 57 610.00 

Garnet and tourmaline 1 2.00 

Hyacinth 1 12.00 

Iron 391 13,340.14 

Manganese 20 266.00 

Mercury 117 3,275.21 

Opal 18 70.75 

Lead 123 1,910.71 

Rock salt 6 113.00 

Tellurium 1 12.00 

Tourmaline 1 7.00 

Turquoise 4 19.00 

Zinc 91 1,046.28 

Total 31,155 443,881.33 



These mining properties were distributed among the various States of 
the Republic as follows : 

No. of No. of Claims 

Central States : Properties. in Hectares. 

Aguascalientes 258 1,671.46 

Durango 4,071 41,131.67 

Guanajuato 1,225 17,121.42 

Hidalgo 1,091 11,367.85 

Mexico 845 12,241.95 

Morelos 54 747.76 

Puebla 276 7,794.98 

Queretaro 1 19 1,425.71 

San Luis Potosi 570 10,131.43 

TIaxcala 1 4.00 

Zacatecas 2,129 19,264.48 

Total 10,639 122,902.71 



144 mi; XI CO. 



Northern States: 

Coahuila 699 10,406.11 

Chihuahua 5,163 78,823.90 

Nucvo Leon 816 13,445.52 

Sonora 5.254 U9,135.49 



Total 11,932 221,811.0. 



Gulf States : 

Tamaulipas 160 1,928.03 

Veracruz. 85 2,345.46 



Total 245 4,273.49 



Pacific States : 

Lower California ( Territory) 833 8,168.92 

Colima 29 863.61 

Chiapas 34 746.27 

Guerrero 1,008 17,397.00 

Jalisco 1.930 17,306.19 

Michoacan 502 11.167.42 

Oaxaca 1,899 18.185.77 

Sinaloa 1,655 16,696.62 

Tepic (Territory) 449 4,362.31 

Total 8,339 94,894.11 



Resume : 

Central States 10,639 122,902.71 

Northern States 11,932 221,811.02 

Gulf States 245 4,273.49 

Pacific States 8,339 94,894.11 



Grand Total 31,155 443,881.33 



Industries. 

IMexico is not essentially a manufacturing country. Such 
articles as the mass of the people require are, however, gen- 
erally produced in sufficient quantities to meet the demand. Since 
the change in the value of silver, the lesson is being learned that 
it is cheaper to make than to buy, and wdthin the last decade 
very large amounts of capital have been invested in manufac- 
tories and other industries. Nevertheless Mexico will not be- 
come, for years at least, a manufacturer of articles other than 
tliose the raw materials of which are produced locally ; but this 
will furnish a field for the investment of almost limitless capital, 
for hardly any nation on earth offers raw material in such splen- 
did abundance. Factories are springing up as these raw materials 
are increasingly supplied, but the country's resources are so great 
that it is destined to continue to become, still more than at pres- 
ent, a great exporter of raw materials. The products of the 



INDUSTRIES. 145 

soil are so varied, so certain and so sure of good markets, that 
capital has hitherto been diverted to agricultural and mineral 
development rather than into manufacturing enterprises on a 
large scale. This is now no longer the case, and the manufac- 
turing interests of the Republic are assuming considerable im- 
portance. 

The Indian, who forms the largest proportion of the laboring 
population, is conservative. He is loth to lay aside the rude 
implements of his forefathers and take up methods of modern 
invention and advancement. His needs are few, and he has 
not always been inspired with a desire to improve his condi- 
tion. Having inherited nothing but tradition and the meager 
physical means to provide for his sustenance, he zealously 
guarded the one and utilized the other to the same extent as his 
forebears, leaving his children only what he himself received. 
Three centuries of Spanish domination have left their imprint 
upon his character, and everything he does is executed in a 
simple manner. Ambition was dormant. He was satisfied with 
his lot and cared little what the morrow might bring forth. 

But conditions are changing rapidly. In some instances the 
Indian is losing ground, the white races are surpassing him, but 
where the native acquires the energy of the life of a new en- 
vironment, he shows with surprising adaptability a spirit of in- 
dustry and progress. Let us remember the small factories of 
a generation ago, or recall perhaps the inadequate street car 
facilities of that time; let us today take opportunity of seeing 
the magnificent establishments equipped with modern machinery, 
and of traveling on the ubiquitous trolley, propelled by electric- 
ity drawn from a power station 100 miles away; then we must 
realize that the Indian peon, who furnishes the skilled labor for 
their complicated operation, has in him an industrial capacity 
which will, before the middle of the century, regenerate his 
race. 

The impetus to this ambition comes from many sides. Trans- 
portation facilities are increasing; a progressive government fos- 
ters industrial interests ; the future development of the Republic is 
assured ; foreign capital and men of enterprise are settling in the 
country, and the old isolation of nation and race is a thing of 
the past. 

Time was when Mexico was regarded by natives and foreign- 
ers as a land of mineral wealth only, and her many other natural 
resources were but little noticed or developed. The building of 
great railway systems, affording better means of communica- 
tion, has, however, brought to the notice of the world at large 
the undeniable possibilities for wealth-earning afforded by the 
country. 



146 MEXICf). 

Mexico, which seemed to know notliin<;- but mines, began a 
few years ago, aided too by the unfavorable money exchange 
that acted ahnost as a protective tarifT, to manufacture, and to- 
day the whistle of the mill and the sound of the hammer are 
heard throughout the land. Many articles which once brought 
the government millions in duties are not now imported, the 
people having gone into the manufacture of them. Thus a com- 
pensating revenue to the government is produced through other 
channels, while at the same time the wealth of the nation is 
augmented. Only a general survey of the manufacturing in- 
dustry of Mexico is here attempted. 

Cotton Mills. The principal factories of the Republic are en- 
gaged in making cotton cloth, but the bulk of the Mexican mills 
are fitted for merely the coarser grades of cotton goods and have 
their best customers in the peon. Cotton manufacturing is not, 
however, a new industry in the Republic. Cortes found in 1519 
such excellent cotton fabrics among the Aztecs that lie sent 
some as a present to the King of Spain. Even before the Aztecs 
cotton spinning was known and practiced, and it sc^jnis prob- 
able that here, as in Asia, cotton cloth was worn before it was 
in Europe. 

The manufacture of cotton by machinery in Mexico dates back 
about seventy-five years. Among the earliest mills still in opera- 
tion are those of Cocolapam (Veracruz), founded in 1840. The 
industry increased but slowly until 1894 when there was a boom 
and many mills were started, but they confined themselves to 
coarse goods; since 1899 a few of the larger and better man- 
aged mills have manufactured goods of medium high grade, and 
these have, as a rule, made money. Nevertheless, the importa- 
tion into Mexico of the higher grades of cotton goods is steadily 
increasing, as the demand from the wealthier classes improves. 

The most important mill towns of Mexico are Puebia and 
Atlixco (State of Puebia), Orizaba (State of Veracruz) and 
the City of Mexico. The distribution of active mills is given in 
the accompanying table. Others, closed down at the date of the 
official report, are included in the general summary. 



H 



n ?ci 






<: 




148 



MEXICO. 



'I'AlilJ': Ol- COTTON MILLS IN ACTIVE OPERATION IN MEXICO, 
JANUARY 1, 1909. 

According to official figures furnished by the Mexican Govern- 
ment there were in Mexico January 1, 1909, 139 mills, contain- 
ing 726,278 spindles and 25,327 looms. Of these, 18 reported as 
closed down, either temporarily or permanently. The 121 active 
mills, containing 666,536 spindles and 23,701 looms in operation, 
are distributed as follows : 



State. 

Puebla 

Veracruz 

Federal District 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Tlaxcala 

Guanajuato. . . . 

Queretaro 

Coaliuila 

Nueva Leon. . . 

Michoacan 

Oaxaca 



Mills. 


Spindles. 


Looms. 


35 


181,304 


6,726 


12 


123,777 


5,693 


11 


69,740 


1,872 


5 


51,618 


1,373 


7 


45,772 


1,468 


8 


33,988 


1,412 


5 


26,620 


759 


4 


20,410 


689 


5 


19,888 


754 


4 


17,848 


701 


3 


14,740 


326 


2 


11,331 


379 



State, 

Durango. . 
Chihuahua 
Guerrero. 

Tepic 

Sinaloa. . . 
Sonora. . . 
Chiapas. . . 
Hidalgo. . . 
Colima. . . 

Total . 



Mills. Spindles. Looms. 



121 



9,854 
7,388 
7,388 
6,472 
6,264 
5,726 
2,788 
2,000 
1,620 



666,536 



332 
295 
236 
166 
235 
170 
91 



24 



23,701 



Condition of the Cotton Manufacturing Industry, Accord- 
ing TO Government Returns — Fiscal Year Ending 
June 30th. 





1900. 


1901. 


1902. 


1903. 


Cotton mills number 


144 


153 


155 


IS^ 


Active spindles do.. 


588,474 


612,939 


595,728 


632.601 


Active looms do . . 


18,069 


19,036 


18,222 


20,271 


Printing machines, .do. . 


36 


33 


37 


35 


Operatives do. . 


27,767 


28.617 


25,668 


26,348 


Cotton consumed, pounds 


63,768,000 


66,716,000 


60,910,000 


60,653,000 


Pieces cloth produced. 


11,552,952 


11,581,523 


10,428,532 


11,587,105 


each 27 meters long.. 










Yarn sold pounds 


4,154.000 


4,050,000 


4,143,000 


4,732,000- 


Mill sales (gold) 


$18,558,000 


$16,871,000 


$14,332,000 


$18,380,000 





1904. 


1905. 


1906. 


1907. 


1908. 


Cotton mills number 


144 


146 


150 


142 


145 


Active spindles do.. 


635,940 


678,058 


688,217 


693,842 


732,876 


Active looms do . . 


20,364 


22,021 


22,776 


23,507 


24,997 


Printing machines, .do. . 


38 


38 


39 


41 


42 


Operatives do. . 


27,456 


30,162 


31,673 


33.132 


35,816 


Cotton consumed, pounds 


63,582,000 


68,850,000 


78,982,000 


80,808,000 


79,454,394 


Pieces cloth produced, 


12,406,523 


13,731,638 


15,456,187 


18,928,832 


16,280,843 


each 27 meters long. . 












Yarn sold pounds 


3,724,000 


3,393,000 


4.769,000 


4,669,000 


5,336,512 


Mill sales (gold) 


$21,170,000 


$25,505,000 


$25,483,000 


$25,740,000 


$27,357,11? 



It is seen that the consumption of cotton per spindle in both 
1900 and 1908 was 108.4 pounds. 

The machinery used in most Mexican cotton mills is practi- 
cally all English, and some of them are well equipped for making 



150 -MIIXICO. 

white goods aiiil printed muslins. Besidc> cloth and ])rint> — the 
iitaitta of the people — rcbosos (shawls and scarfs for women), 
blankets and coarse napkins are made. Knitted garments are 
also manufactured, but only in small amounts, as this industry 
is in its infancy. 

Woolen Mills. The manufacture of woolen articles has since 
1541 been going on in Mexico, as it is an established fact that 
in that year the first viceroy introduced Merino sheep into the 
country and encouraged the production of cloth from their 
tleece. Woolen blankets are made by machinery, and also those 
of a mixture of wool and cotton, which, although they have not 
the body and fineness of texture of those of Europe, have good 
resistance and are cheap. The making of sarapes constitutes, 
perhaps, the most profitable industry. These multicolored 
woolen cloaks or blankets are well woven, those of Saltillo 
(State of Coahuila) and Oaxaca (State of Oaxaca), made by 
the Indians in that neighborhood, liave been celebrated for their 
fine texture, brilHant colors and excellent wearing qualities. They 
have achieved considerable fame abroad, and the best grades 
command a very high price. The Indians use primitive looms, 
in their homes, but they have developed a remarkable skill in 
this native art. 

The manufacture of woolen articles is carried on in many 
States, and there are mills in Aguascalientes, Durango, Guana- 
juato, Hidalgo and Puebla ; the principal factory in the Republic 
is at Tlalnepantla (State of Mexico), with 4,700 spindles. 117 
looms, hydro-electric power and about 800 operatives. The out- 
put consists of suitings, kerseymeres, carpets and blankets. 
Other factories of this character are actively producing goods 
of similar grade, and meeting to a moderate extent the increas- 
ing demand for woolen materials. 

Silk and other textile industries. Silk weaving can not be 
said to be greatly developed at present, but it has every prospect 
of growing. Silk was cultivated and sold in the markets of 
Mexico as far back as the time of Charles V, Cortes speaking 
of the fact in his letters to that monarch, and there are still 
preserved pictures done by the ancient Mexicans upon a paper 
made of silk. The culture of the silkworm and weaving of its 
product were prohibited by the Spanish crown in its American 
possessions during the viceregal administrations ; the industry 
gradually died out, therefore, and it has only recently been re- 
vived. 

The climate of Mexico is unexcelled by any in the world for 
raising and developing cocoons, as the white and black mulberry 
leaves grow well in most parts of the country. In 1886 several 
of the State governments offered inducements for the cultiva- 
tion of trees and worms, and the same offers have been repeated 



MILLS. 



151 



since then. The National Government also is taking measures 
to foment sericulture throughout the Republic, and instructions 
have lately been issued to the Department of Promotion 
{Foment o) to provide adequate instruction to all persons desir- 
ous of engaging in this industry. Mulberry trees will be dis- 
tributed from the government agricultural school grounds in the 
Federal District, and premiums are rewarded for cocoons. In 
the gardens between Churubusco and Coyoacan (suburbs of the 
City of Mexico) 6,000,000 trees are to be planted and from 
them propagation slips can be distributed throughout the coun- 
try. Exhibits will be held of the industry, and instruction m 
care of silkworms and in weaving of silk from cocoons is to be 
given. This interest on the part of the Government has already 
borne fruit, for silk culture in Chihuahua has commenced under 
favorable circumstances, and in Nuevo Leon attention has been 
strongly attracted to it. 

In Orizaba is a jute mill equipped with the latest machmery 
and operated by electric power from falls on the Rio Blanco. 
The output of this industry consists of various kinds of sacks, 
as well as all classes of packing cloth, carpets, rugs and twine ; 
it is the intention to make also light goods of Hessian burlaps. 
There is a linen mill in Mexico City, which was established 
in 1887. It produces ticking, drill, hollands, performing the 
spinning, weaving, dyeing and bleaching on its own premises. 
Other mills in the Republic have been erected, and textiles of 
domestic weave are common in every region. 

Paper Mills. There are in Mexico many varieties and a great 
quantity of fibrous plants and other material for paper making, 
and certain grades of parchment, prepared by the Aztecs long 
before the Conquest, have been in constant use in the country. 
In fact, the old codices that have preserved the records of the 
pre-Columbian epoch would have been lost had it not been for 
the wonderful strength of these documents. Nevertheless paper 
and paper stock is imported to meet the growing demand of the 
printing and allied industries. The oldest mill was located at 
Cocolapam, near Orizaba (State of Veracruz), producing a 
straw and printing paper of a low grade. In Arteaga (State of 
Coahuila) is a paper mill, and in the State of Tlaxcala there 
are several mills devoted to the manufacture of paper, in addi- 
tion to the cotton mills. The most activity in this industry is 
shown, however, in the State of Mexico, not far from the cap- 
ital. This region is densely wooded and is well supplied with 
water power; nearly all the newspapers of Mexico are printed 
on papers manufactured here. A plant is also in operation for 
the preparation of mechanical wood-pulp. 

Sugar Mills. The production of sugar in Mexico is earned 
on both by the wealthy planter, with his hundreds of thousands 



152 



MKXICO. 



of dollars invested in lands and refineries, and by the pour renter 
with his few acres of ground, his wooden rolls and copper kettle. 
The rich man produces refined white sugar, and the poor man 
produces the various classes of brown sugar known as piloncillo, 
panocJia and panda. Up to a few years ago the sugar industry 
was backward, the older and cruder methods being used, and 
the best kind of machinery being but slowly introduced. The 
first sugar plantation and mill in Mexico was established by 
Cortes at a place called Tlantenango, in the State of Morelos, 
and this State even today leads in the production of that neces- 
sity of life. Upon some few estates, however, the most com- 
plete and modern machinery has been introduced. This is espe- 
cially the case in the factories in the States of Morelos, Michoa- 
can and Jalisco, and in this regard the amount of foreign capi- 
tal invested is constantly increasing. 

There are over 2,000 sugar mills, large and small, in Mexico, 
and the tendency is both to increase the acreage under cultiva- 
tion and to modernize methods and machinery in the manufac- 
turing processes. 

Braveries and Distilleries. The making of fermented liquor 
is one of the prehistoric industries of the country, and the pulque 
of the natives was known before the time of Cortes. Although 
by far the larger amount drunk is still prepared in the traditional 
methods, modified perhaps by the economic ideas of the owners 
of the large haciendas, yet a small proportion is today manu- 
factured under carefully controlled conditions, so that it bids 
fair to become a drink which will not be offensive to the foreign 
palate. 

Since the increase of the foreign population beer has reached' 
a high place in popular demand, and nearly every city has its 
brewery, while every wayside cantina has good beer with which 
to quench the thirst of the traveler. Excellent beer is brewed 
in the large centers like Orizaba, Toluca, Monterrey and Mex- 
ico City, and as an industry brewing ranks among the best estab- 
lished in the Republic. The machinery is of the best grade and 
modern, and the most advanced precautions are taken to comply 
with all the requirements of hygiene. Strong efiforts are made, 
too, to encourage the use of beer among the peon class, so that 
some of the evil consequences of the indulgence in stronger 
drinks may be overcome. 

Distilleries are found all over the country, but not many of the 
plants are modern. Their chief output is the liquor mescal, 
which is a raw product of the maguey; a more carefully pre- 
pared liquor, the same as mescal but more comparable to stan- 
darized drinks, is tequila, so called from the town of that name 
in the State of Jalisco. 



154 MEXICO. 

Very fair native wine and brandy are made of the grape, that 
grown near the town of Parras in the State of Coahuila being 
especially good, but commercial success has not been so exten- 
sive as to attract national attention to the industry. It is un- 
doubted, however, that grape culture is attaining importance. 
The white and purple grape of the Parras* (Coahuila) region 
are equal to Malaga or Granada varieties, and its good wine 
should be better known. 

Tobacco Products. The tobacco-utilizing industry is extensive, 
nearly every town and hamlet having its cigarette factory, and 
owing to the general use of cigarettes in Mexico cigarette fac- 
tories are of greater importance than the cigar factories, and 
the Republic has some of the best equipped cigarette factories in 
the world. The largest institutions for the production of both 
articles are in the Federal District, Puebla and Veracruz. At 
the end of 1909 there were registered in the Republic 437 fac- 
tories ; these had turned out 505,437,551 packages of cigarettes 
(a package contains usually 16 cigarettes), and 61,336,415 
cigars of various kinds, besides other forms of tobacco for con- 
sumption or further manufacture. These factories are for the 
most part well equipped with the latest and best European and 
American machinery, are conducted in a thoroughly hygienic 
way in buildings especially constructed for the purpose, and the 
skill of the working people, who moreover really enjoy their 
occupation, is an object lesson of the industrial possibilities of 
the native Mexican. 

Iron and Steel Works and Foundries. Iron foundries are 
numerous, the excellent quality of the Mexican minerals and 
their abundance making it possible for them to turn out good 
work. In most of them the product is no more than the 
smaller agricultural implements and ordinary marketable iron, 
but in an increasing number finished articles of the highest 
grade and character are regularly produced. There is a large 
foundry in Monterrey which is capable of turning out practi- 
cally everything required in the way of rails, beams, and other 
forms of structural iron. Other foundries are located in the 
States of Hidalgo, Jalisco and Guanajuato, and the great iron 
deposits of the country are promising neighborhoods for this 
industry. 

Tanneries and Leather Industries. Small tanneries exist in 
most of the cities and towns, although the tanning and leather 
trade of the Republic is centered chiefly in the City of Mexico 
and Leon (State of Guanajuato). From an economic point of 
view tanning in Mexico should be profitable, owing to the low 
cost of the prime materials, but from an industrial standpoint it 



*Parras means grapevine, or wild grapes. 



LEATHER INDUSTRY. 155 

is behind the times, and the majority of tanneries in the Re- 
public are comparatively small affairs. The tans in general use 
are cascalote, gnainachil bark, oak bark, palo bianco, timbre bark, 
and sumac leaves. 

The States surrounding the Federal District produce these 
vegetable tans which are mostly used throughout the country, 
with the exception of palo bianco from Lower California and 
Sonora; caraigro, from the northern regions of Mexico, but 
which is not used by Mexican tanners. Cascalote is the national 
tanning material. Toluca (capital of the State of Mexico) is 
the most important point of distribution of this valuable prod- 
uct, although a considerable quantity comes from the State of 
Guerrero. 

The popular method of tanning consists in placing the pre- 
pared hides for two days in vats with a "weak" or "sweet" tan 
liquor until the hides have uniformly taken the color. They 
are then removed and sewed up into bags, roughly resembling 
the original shape of the animal, and are filled with a stronger 
tan liquor and a quantity of ground cascalote. The filled hides 
are allowed to stand in rows on the pavement of the patio, the 
liquor oozing out and running into a centrally located pit, from 
which it is dipped, to be thrown over the hides and to refill 
them, from time to time, the liquor being gradually strength- 
ened. They remain, as a rule, sewn up for about 15 days, and 
are for a part of this time piled up in six or eight tiers, the 
pressure of the filled hides upon each other causing the tan 
liquor gradually to ooze through, and it must be acknowledged 
that the result is a very satisfactory tannage. Sole leather is the 
principal product, but uppers and harness leathers are also man- 
ufactured. 

Shoes are made in the Republic, in considerable quantities, al- 
though the large and increasing importations indicate that local 
factories can not supply the demand for an article of highest 
grade, nor can they keep up with the tendency of the native to 
use footwear as part of his clothing. Every town has a shoe 
factory, but of only modest proportions, sufficient to meet the 
ordinary requirements of the people. Nevertheless the indus- 
try is growing; there are probably not many more than one 
dozen factories of modern type in the country, most of them in 
or near the City of Mexico. The largest has a capacity of 2,000 
pairs of shoes a day, while some of the smaller turn out no 
more than 200 pairs. It must be added, however, that most of 
these are run to their fullest capacity. When once foreign tanned 
leathers and foreign styles can be equaled, the naturally favor- 
able opportunity for the manufacture of boots and shoes in 
Mexico \x\\\ be successfully utilized. 

These industries alreadv mentioned bv no means constitute all 



156 MEXICO. 

the activities of that character in the l\ei)uhhc. They emhrace, 
however, the most important ones, and ]Kirticularly those draw- 
ing their raw material from the natural supphes of the country. 
Alore capital alone is needed to expand these industries beyond 
their present status. Man}' (jther industries do indeed deserve 
notice, as they have some close relation to the indigenous riches 
of the country, or, either in a direct or indirect way, they foster 
native ambition founded on these resources. For instance, the 
manufacture of pottery is very general in Mexico. It is carried 
on everywhere, and in not a few localities it has its distinctive 
features of quality, design and color. The cities of Cuernavaca, 
Guadalajara, Zacatecas, Guanajuato and Puebla may be said to 
be the centers of the industry. Yet, considered from the com- 
mercial point of view, it can not be asserted that the making of 
pottery or earthenware can be classed among the highest de- 
veloped industries. As artistic productions, nevertheless, these 
articles deserve great praise, and the domestic methods by which 
they are made should be preserved. 

Glassware is made to some extent, bottles and window glass 
being the main product, but the abundance of raw material suit- 
able to the industry would warrant a decided expansion as soon 
as capital sees the opportunity. 

Raw^ material is, in like manner, the basis of the factories pro- 
ducing furniture, of which quantities are made, and of excellent 
quality, but chiefly for particular requirements, leaving an im- 
mense field for the importation of the output of foreign fac- 
tories. Saw mills are being erected in many parts of the coun- 
try, and the supply from them is used for furniture and in con- 
struction work. There are also paint, candle, soap and hat fac- 
tories, and works preparing good grades of cement, all deriving 
their raw material comparatively close at hand. Matches, espe- 
cially those of wax (cerillas), are produced in enormous amounts, 
and modern machinery has been gradually introduced to make 
them. In fact the natives have to some extent always turned 
their raw material to some use, and it needs only the capital and 
initiative to readjust these historic occupations into modern in- 
dustrial enterprises. 

Two of the newer phases of factory enterprise need mention — 
the establishments for gunpowder and other high explosives, and 
those for the meat-packing industry. A company operating in 
the State of Durango has special privileges from the Govern- 
ment, which amount practically to a monopoly of the manufac- 
ture of high explosives, such as dynamite, used in mining and 
for military purposes. It has its own works with modern ma- 
chinery for the preparation of the necessary ingredients, and is 
about able to meet the demand of the country. In addition, the 
Government itself has entered the field as a manufacturer of 



INDUSTRIES. 



157 



smokeless powder, and has recently established, under the War 
and Navy Department, a factory for the production of that ex- 
plosive. This is located in an isolated place, Santa Fe, just out- 
side of the City of Mexico, and was inaugurated during the cen- 
tennial celebrations in 1910. Every detail of the manufacture 
of this explosive is attended to, and the most modern machinery 
has been provided. 

The meat-packing industry is almost the newest phase of Mex- 
ico's activities. In spite of the fact that cattle, and this would 
include sheep and hogs, grow in a wonderfully prolific way 
throughout the country, preparation of meat for market has, up 
to very recently, been a matter of the butcher's knife solely. Cat- 
tle from the northern States were shipped across the border, to 
be returned in the form of prepared beef. Today, however, 
business and scientific methods are fast changing this, and the 
imperfect systems are being replaced. Packing plants are to be 
found in several of the cattle districts, but recently a company, 
equipped with the most substantial machinery, has secured a con- 
cession from the Federal Government to erect its plant in Mex- 
ico City, in order to take advantage of the immense possibilities 
of the business there, and to improve the conditions surround- 
ing the supply of meat to the capital. 

Thus it is evident that manufacturing has advanced, but that 
Mexico has not yet reached the stage of the industrial countries 
of Europe. Conditions are at present unfavorable to the estab- 
lishment of large centers, where millions of capital and thou- 
sands of employees are under the direction of one corporation, 
but on the other hand the small manufacturer will here find a 
very encouraging outlook. He who in person oversees his own 
employees, and who depends to a certain extent upon his own 
skill, energy and business talent for the success of any enter- 
prise, need seek no better field in which to exercise his knowl- 
edge and ability. Mexico is today unequaled in the world (ex- 
cept perhaps by Japan) as a field for the small manufacturer. 
The docility, skill and imitativeness of the native artisan make 
him a desirable workman. The cheapness of food products, the 
abundance and low cost of raw material, and the mildness of 
the climate, all conduce to the production of goods at a small 
expense. 

The home markets are increasing remarkably. Of the nearly 
16,000,000 inhabitants of the Republic, only a small portion, 
until lately, had the means to buy many things that in other 
countries are considered necessities. But the extended educa- 
tional system, the continued prosperity in the Republic, the ex- 
pansion of railroad and mining activity, have put a large amount 
of money into circulation ; the examples of foreigners, the growth 
in population following upon peace and prosperity, have like- 



158 Miixico. 

wise stimulated consumption among- tlic people far beyond what 
it was in former years. 

Alexico for the manufacturer has inviting ])rospects. Native 
methods can be improved, and new pro(kicts introckiced. Water 
power from the innumerable streams from the mountains and 
in the valleys is offered to factories in surprising abundance. 
Labor is cheap, easily trained and commendably ambitious. The 
Government maintains a tarifif amply protective to home indus- 
tries, and markets are at hand for all articles worthy of com- 
parison with imported products of a more industrial civilization. 




FIXAXCE. 159 

CHAPTER \-. 
Finance. 

The financial question in Mexico has been one of the most per- 
plexing problems that ever presented itself to the statesman's 
mmd. When the country emerged from its centuries of colonial 
rule It was confronted with the gravest economic difficulties. The 
tributary system, based upon monopoly and exclusive privileges, 
which had prevailed before the separation from Spain, co'iild 
not be continued under the conditions obtaining among an eman- 
cipated and autonomic people. Without any previous experi- 
ence, they were compelled to change, to improvise, and to trv new 
systems. The many revohitions and consequent disturbances in 
administration served but to add to the perplexity of the situa- 
tion, and it has required a high order of ability' to bring the 
finances of the Republic to their present condition. 

Nothing is more remarkable, indeed, in the record of Mexico's 
progress, than the improvements in the finances of the Federal 
Government. Xo longer ago than the year 1888 the Budget 
Committee of the Chamber of Deputies declared that the attain- 
ment of equilibrium between the receipts and disbursements of 
the Federal Treasury was almost an impossibilitv under the then 
existing conditions of national finance. But within eight years 
the financial condition of the country had been so completely re- 
organized that the annual Treasury statements began to furnish 
a triumphant refutation of the pessimistic forecast of the Budget 
Committee in 1888. "^ 

The fiscal year 1895-1896 was ended with a surplus, and thi^ 
fact caused the liveliest satisfaction both at home and abroad 
This was the first year in the fiscal history of ^lexico where such 
a result was incontrovertibly achieved. 

Public Debt. 

A brief resume of Mexico's public debt will therefore be of 
interest. In 1823 the Government issued paper money, with re- 
sults so deplorable that no administration has since ventured to 
repeat the experiment. By a law of that same year (Mav 1st) 
the negotiation in London of a loan of $8,000,000 was author- 
ized. On August 27, 1823, another loan was authorized These 
two loans had an original face value of £6,400,000, equivalent at 
the time to $32,000,000. The sum realized bv the sale of the 
bonds of the two issues was made up as follows : 

Loan of 1824 (5 per cent) £1.283.956 lis 5d 

Loan of 1825 (6 per cent) 2,398,582 12 3 

i3,682,539 3 8 



160 MEXICO. 

By May 1, 1826, the total debt of Mexico, all principal and in- 
terest being considered, stood at £5,281,400, and this sum was 
the basis and starting point of all subsequent operations and ar- 
rangements in regard to what is known in Mexican history as the 
English debt, but which was finally disposed of in 1886. 

On September 30, 1837, the total foreign debt of the Republic, 
as recognized, was £9,247,378 8s 6d. 

On July 1. 1846, the whole foreign debt was consolidated into 
a loan of £10,241,650. This arrangement was disturbed by the 
war between the United States and Mexico, and the consequent 
loss of securities pledged, at the customs receipts at Veracruz and 
Tampico, for the service. 

In 1861 (May 5th) the retiring Minister of Finance gave a 
statement of the public debt of the Nation at that time, con- 
fessedly approximate but of great interest. It was composed of 
two items — 

Foreign debt (principal and interest) $62,208,250 

Interior debt 94,841,495 



$157,049,745 



The law of July 7, 1861, whereby the Nation, owing to its 
financial difficulties, suspended payments to its foreign creditors, 
was the pretext for the intervention of the allied powers. 

The Republic had been restored in 1867, but it had no money 
and no credit, and had meanwhile accumulated other obligations 
by loans of various kinds from various countries. After pro- 
longed negotiations, and the rejection by either side of proposals 
for adjustment of these debts, a successful solution was reached 
during the early months of President Diaz' second term. To- 
ward the close of 1888 the Financial Agency of Mexico in Lon- 
don issued a statement that the old securities admissible to con- 
version aggregated £22,741,322, and this sum was reduced by 
conversion to £14,727,400, the difference being a gain for Mexico. 
Further arrangements touching this debt were accomplished, so 
that a debt approximating £23,000,000 was ultimatelv paid off 
with £5.890,960. 

In effect, the law of 1885 and the arrangements with the Eng- 
lish bondholders, proved the good faith of the administration and 
opened to the Republic the markets of Europe. In 1888 a loan 
of £10,000.000 (net sum realized £8,238,750) was negotiated, and 
by this the Government's floating debt was extinguished. In 1889 
the Tehuantepec Railway loan was issued, the authorized amount 
being £2,700,000. In 1890 a loan of £6,000,000 was floated for 
financing the construction of the Monterrey Tampico Railway. 
In 1893 emergency loans aggregating £3,000,000 were negotiated, 
but only £1,890,073 were realized. Conditions grew complicated 



162 M i:\ico. 

owing to the crisis occasioned by the fall of silver and a succession 

of had liarvcsts. hut in 18*H ( Scptcml)cr Ath) two ini]:)ort;mt laws 
were cnactcnl h\- which aU chiinis were to be examined either I'nr 
reci Ignition or rejection, and the debt thereby uniformizech 

In July, 18W, Minister Limantour consummated a financial 
operation which may be regarded as the first in the fiscal hist(jry 
of Mexico to ])C effected in accordance with thoroughly sound 
business princii)les. This was the conversion of all outstanding 
gold loans of the Mexican Federation into a new five i)cr cent 
issue. 

The loans eni])race(l in the conversion were the foJlowin.L;- : 

Six per cent luan of 1888, originally £10,500,000 = £9,98^,800 

Six per cent loan of 1890, originally 6,000,000 = 5,852,300 

Six per cent loan of 1893, originally 3,000,000 = 2,949,120 
l-'iye per cent loan of 1899 (for the 

Tclniantepec Railway Loan) originally 2,700,000 = 2,673,000 



£21,457,220 



'\'h\> outstanding amottnt of the fottr diff'erent loans aljove 
eiuimerated was converted into a single new loan earning 3 per 
cent interest. The principal of the new loan necessarily exceeded 
the combined principal of the four loans converted, but this had 
been anticipated, for, by readjusting the loans and reducing the 
interest on them, the saving to the Republic through the operation 
was £1,678,981, and in other ways a saving to the ptihlic Treasury 
was accomplished. 

The loan of 1899 is guaranteed by an assignment of 62 per 
ceiU of the im])ort and export duties, while, the coupons are pa}-- 
a])le tour times a year, /. c, on January 1st, April 1st, July 1st 
and (Jctober 1st. 

There is a sinking fund service, and a plan by which bonds can 
be i)aid off" by semi-annual drawings, or even purchased in o])en 
market, if the Government so desire. 

IJy these arrangements the loan will be extinguished at liic 
latest bv Tanuarv 1, 1945. 

In 1903, and' again in 1904, Treasury notes for $12,500,000 
(gold) and for $6,000,000 were issued, for payment of public 
works and for the development of government ]-)olicy of railway 
control. These carry 4>4 per cent interest. 

In November, 1904, a new loan, carrying 4 per cent interest, 
of $40,000,000 (gold) was negotiated, the special i)urpose of 
which was to pay oft" the Treasury notes of 1903 and 1904 men- 
tioned in the above paragraph, to meet certificates issued in set- 
tlement of public works, to pay off certain raihvay bonds still 
outstanding, and to continue public works still in construction. 

In 1889, the Municipality of Mexico had incurred an indebted- 
ness of £2.400,000 for work on the drainage of the X'alley of 



PUBLIC DEBT. 163 

Mexico, and in 1903 the Federal District became subject, in finan- 
cial matters, to the National Government, this debt as well as the 
municipal income wherewith to meet it, being made a national 
affair, but it is evident that by this arrangement the augmentation 
is nominal rather than real. It should be added in this connection 
that the Mexican Government has now a law promulgated (on 
December 18, 1901) with full consent prohibiting the States from 
borrowing, by means of public issue of bonds, on foreign mar- 
kets. The credit of the nation is thus protected from adverse in- 
fluences whether within or without the Republic. 

The public debt of Mexico can therefore be given as follows : 

June 30, 1909. June 30, 1910. 
Debt payable in foreign currency : Mexican pesos. 

Face value of bonds in circulation 300,950,996.20 297,411,083.52 

Uncollected coupons 3,127,562.26 3,113,912.50 

Total 304,078,558.46 300,524,996.02 

Debt payable in Mexican currency : 

Face value of bonds in circulation 137,849,135.00 136,781,760.00 

Uncollected coupons 1,039,973.37 1,068,373.71 

Total 138,889,108.37 137,850,133.71 

Floating debt : 

Uncollected balances of past budgets 368,679.10 Z73,398.73 



Grand total 443,336,345.93 438,648,528.46 

If only the principal of the funded debt be considered the de- 
crease was 4,607,287.68 pesos; but if interest be included, the de- 
crease was only 4,592,537.10 pesos. Matured but uncollected 
coupons, as well as bonds called for redemption but not yet pre- 
sented, figure naturally as liabilities of the nation ; but it should 
be observed that funds for their payment are on hand in the banks 
having charge of the service of the debt. This really means that 
the amount of the Public Debt is actually some eight million pesos 
less than the total above given, seeing that the Government has 
already paid over such sum toward the amortization of that total. 
During the fiscal year 1909-1910 considerable amounts of the 
various securities of the Pubhc Debt were paid off. This con- 
densed table shows the amounts thus redeemed : 

Pesos. 

Debt payable in foreign currency 3,539,912.68 

Debt payable in Mexican currency 1,067,375.00 

Floating debt (non-interest-bearing) 95,280.37 

4,702,568.05 



164 



MEXICO. 



No new securities of the Public Debt were issued during the 
fiscal year 1909-1910, so that there is nothing in that respect to set 
against the amount redeemed. 



Revenue and Expenditure. 

Every year the finance minister presents to Congress an analysis 
of the Treasury statement for the fiscal year ended on the 
previous June 30th. Ordinary revenue and expenditure, by 
which are meant, respectively, the proceeds of taxes and re- 
ceipts provided for in the Budget or subsequent votes of the 
Chamber, were as follows : 

Revenue. 

1908-1909 1909-1910. 

Ordinary revenue from these sources — Pesos. Pesos. 

Taxes on Foreign Commerce 40,567,140.92 49,690,357.23 

Internal Taxes (chiefly stamp taxes) 

payable throughout the Federation 31,972,760.97 33,416,417.38 

Internal Taxes payable in the Federal Dis- 
trict and Territories 11,881,287.13 11,685,234.34 

Public Service and Minor Sources 14,354,321.77 11,536,476.15 

98,775,510.79 106,328,485.10 

Expenditure. 

1908-1909 1909-1910. 

Budget Divisions — Pesos. Pesos. 

Legislature 1,278,670.17 1,395,468.35 

Executive 237,083.93 242,718.28 

Judiciarv 636,145.12 588,831.93 

Department of Foreign Relations 1,861,058.64 2,147,952.61 

Department of the Interior — 

Ministerial and general 616,730.12 1,002,498.96 

Public Health 551,324.99 515,391.68 

Rural Police 1,750,712.29 1,789,072.97 

Charities (Federal District) 1,252,800.45 1,255,074.35 

Administration (Federal District).... 7,891,367.27 7,284,536.94 

Administration (Fed'l Territories) ... 380.392.06 379,687.21 

Department of Justice 1,567,721.26 1,547,133.89 

Department of Public Instruction and Fine 

Arts 6,458,419.93 6,604.952.48 

Department of Promotion (Fomento), Col- 
onization and Industry 2,569,088.97 2,655,837.48 

Department of Communication and Public 
Works— 

Sundrv Services 5,245,676.57 5,333,708.20 

Post Office 5,120,463.69 5,207,179.54 

Telegraph Lines 2,771,453.46 2,798,573.01 

Department of Finance and Public Credit- 
Administrative Services 8,729,176.83 8,848,609.51 

Public Debt 25,870,982.98 26,251,267.32 

Department of War and Marine — • 

Armv 16,270,566.92 17,432,601.54 

Navy 1,907,557.66 1,747,554.32 

Totals 92,967,393.31 95,028,650.57 



Tan AMX.KICAH Uh lOH 




Revenue and 



Expenditure of Mextcan Government for 1909-10. 



166 MKXICO. 

A table of percentages of these expenditures, wliich gives at 
the same time comparative proportions of the cost of the Gov- 
ernment from year to year, will be of interest. 

Percentage of expenditure on departmental disbursements: 

Percentage of expenditure on de- 
partmental disbursements. 
Budget divisions. 1907-08 1908-09 1909-10 

Legislature 1.30 1.38 1.47 

Executive 0.30 0.26 0.25 

Judiciary 0.62 0.68 0.62 

Foreign Relations 2.03 2.(K) 2.26 

Interior Department- — 

Ministerial and general 1.24 0.66 1.05 

Public Health 0.S6 0.59 0.54 

Rural Police 1.82 1.88 1.88 

Charities, Federal District 1.25 1.35 1.32 

Administration, Federal District 8.64 8.49 7.66 

Administration, Federal Ters... 0.38 0.41 0.40 

13.89 13.88 12.85 

Department of Justice 1.55 1.69 1.62 

Department of Public InstructiiMi 

and the Fine Arts 6.36 6.95 6.95 

Department of Promotion (Fontcit- 

to), Colonization and Industry... 2.13 2.76 2.79 

Department of Communication and 
Public Works — 

Sundry Services 7.75 5.64 5.61 

Post Office 4.79 5.50 5.48 

Telegraph lines 3.11 2.98 2.96 

15.65 14.12 14.05 

Department of Finance and Public 
Credit- 
Administration Services 9.10 9.39 9.31 

Public Debt 28.23 27.83 27.63 

37.33 37.22 36.94 

Department of War and Marine — 

Army 16.63 17.51 18.36 

Navy 2.21 2.05 1.84 

18.84 19.56 20.20 

100.00 100.00 100.00 



168 Mi':xico. 

Budget. 

Ordinary revenue and expenditure, by which are meant, re- 
spectively, the proceeds of taxes and receipts provided for in 
the Budget and disbursements made under appropriations also 
provided for in the Budget or by subsequent votes of the 
Chamber, were as follows in the fiscal year 1909-1910: 

Pesos 

Ordinary revenue in cash 106,328.485.10 

Ordinary expenditures in cash 95,028,650.57 

Surplus for the year 11,299,834.53 

This surplus affords proof of the disappearance of the finan- 
cial depression that had prevailed in the Republic since 1908, 
especially when it is noted that the revenue, as compared with 
the preceding year, was increased by 7,552,974.31 pesos. 

A comparative table of estimates in the Budget and collections 
actually made in 1909-1910, is thus given : 

Form of Taxation Estimates Collections 

Taxes on Foreign Pesos 

Commerce — 
Import duties ...42,000,000.00 46,566,674.20 

Other taxes 2,709.000.00 3,123,683.03 



44,709,000.00 49,690.357.23 

Interior Taxes pay- 
able through the 
Federation — 

Stamp taxes ... 30,175,000.00 33,245,585.38 

Other taxes 130,000.00 170,832.00 



30,305,000.00 33,416,417.38 

Interior Taxes pay- 
able in the Federal 
District and Terri- 
tories 11,287,000.00 11,685,234.34 

Public services and 
minor sources ... 10,960,000.00 11,536,476.15 



97,261,000.00 106,328,485.10 



BUDGET. 



169 



The Budget for the current fiscal year, 1910-1911, and that 
for the coming year, 1911-1912, are as follows: 

Budget for 1910-11 Budget for 1911-12 

Pesos Pesos 

Leo-islature 1,621,976.25 1,621,976.25 

Ex'ecutive 257,738.00 259,749.00 

Judiciary •• 620,607.25 624,711.25 

Foreign' Relations 1,867,348.40 2,078,412.90 

Department of the Interior — 

Office of Minister, and general.. 957,974.50 723,574.50 

Public Health 562,899.96 591,477.46 

Rural Police 1,784,083.00 1,928.583.00 

Charities of Federal District.... 1,657,582.75 1,584,079.25 

Administration District 7,843,305.75 7,976,521.25 

Administration of Federal Ter's.. 413,993.00 413,993.00' 

Ministry of Justice 1,611,536.25 1,618,398.25 

Public Instruction and Fine Arts.... 6,970,056.95 7,418,203.00 

Promotion (Fomento). Colonization 

and Industry 3,923,816.00 3,993,083.00 

Communication and Public Works.. 15,611,770.05 16,048,325.30 

Finance and Public Credit — 

Administration - 9,130,750.85 9,203,292.60 

Public Debt 26,341,416.39 25,850815.12 

Army and Navy • 21,117,175.08 21,667,206.35 

Totals 102,294,030.43 103,602,401.46 

The estimated revenues have been and are to be derived from 
the same sources as those already given in the actual revenues 
collected in previous years to meet those Budgets. Mmor sources 
of revenue, included but not specifically mentioned in the tables, 
are worth notice. Under Taxes on Foreign Commerce are, be- 
sides import duties, export duties; sundry port dues; consu- 
lar fees ; preventive and warehouse dues ; pilotage dues ; sanitary 
dues ; navigation licenses ; transit dues, etc. Stamp revenues are 
collected from the post office, Federal contribution, mining prop- 
erty, precious metals, manufactured tobacco, alcoholic liquors, 
cotton yarn and cloth, patents and trade marks, dynamite and ex- 
plosives, etc. There are dues on assays, melting, refining, etc.. 
and of taxes payable in the Federal District the bulk is made up 
of direct contributions, predial (land), prof-essional and registra- 
tion dues, tax on flour and pulque, etc., and succession duties. 



1"0 MKXICl). 



Coinage. 



"I'oiiKd money was introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards, 
and durinj4 the first years of the vSpanish occupation all coins 
were iniporteil. In barter the Aztecs used cacao-beans, trans- 
parent quills of i^old dust, pieces of tin and thin copper, and 
other symbols. May 11. 1535, the King of Spain authorized the 
establishment of a mint (aisa de moncda) in Mexico City, subject 
to the laws governing Spanish mints. The first mint in New 
Spain was completed on the site of the present Palacio Municipal 
in 1537. and the first coins were struck that year." The custom 
Avas sometimes followed later of renting mints to ])rivate indi- 
viduals who collected a mintage charge of nearly 4|j per cent 
upon the amount of bullion coined. 

"The money ( moiicdo iiiaciiqiiiiia, cut or edgeless coin), issued 
between 1537 and 1731, was irregularly hammered out. marked 
with a cross, two castles, two lions, the initials of the king and 
the Mexican mark. In 1569 the mint was removed to the 
Palacio Nacional. In 1734 a suitable building was completed 
for the exclusive use of the mint, on the site of the present 
jMusco Nacional, wdiere were produced from 1734 to 1771 coins 
marked with the coat of arms of Spain supported between the 
two ])illars of Hercules ; this money was known as the )no)icda 
coliDHiiaria. From 1772 to 1821 was issued the moncda dc biista 
because it bore the effigy of the king. Between 1822 and 1823 
(after the war of independence) the money bore the profile of 
Agustin de Iturbide, first Mexican Emperor. The ^Mexican 
eagle and the Phrygian cap appeared on the coins issued from 
that last date to 1862. From 1863 to 1867 the imperial money 
bore the bust of Maximilian (the emperor). The old republican 
peso fiicrtc or duro dates from 1868. This is replaced by the 
reformed coins of 1905," and by those of still later dates, such 
as the centennial (1910) coins, for special occasions. 

As late as 1895 there were thirteen mints in the Republic, but 
as increased facilities of transportation reduced the difficulties 
attendant upon the carriage of the bullion from mine to mint, the 
number has been reduced to four, in 1904, and finally the mint 
in Mexico City is now the only one in operation. 

The monetary unit is the silver peso, the legal value of which 
has been fixed at .75 gramme of pure gold. According to the 
report of the Secretary of the United States Treasury Depart- 
ment, January 1, 1911, this Alexican peso had a value in terms 
of United States money of $0,498, which, allowing for minute 
fluctuations in exchange and gold, is fixed and permanent. 



COINAGE. 



171 



Coins of the Republic of Mexico are issued as follows : 

Gold 
10 peso piece (.900 fine and .100 copper), weighing 8.333 1/3 grammes 
5 peso piece (.900 fine and .100 copper), weighing 4.166 2/3 grammes 

Silver 

1 peso piece (.9027 fine and .0793 copper), weighing 27.073 grammes and 

containing 24.438 grammes of fine silver. 

The peso is divided into 100 centavos. 

SO centavo piece i 

20 centavo piece > .800 fine and .200 copper. 

10 centavo piece j 

Nickel 
5 centavo piece, 
Bronze 

2 centavo piece U^ 4 ^^ ^^^ ^ ^j^^ 
1 centavo piece j ^ ^^ ' 

ff^^^^/lAMUAL AVERAGE VALUE OF THE^V^SHi 
MEXICAN PESO 

m THE NEW TORK EXCHANGE 




A}»0'{,«J^»< $0.4684 |0.4145 10.4176 i>0.4564 ^0.4955 ftO.5022 |0.4977 |0A9.73 80.4972. JQA'ilA ^^f.'jSlI,"' 



'Wi?™S*'' 1901 1902 1905 1904 1305 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 



CAI.I.MDMC 



uiimiiiiiHuirauiuiiuuiuiiiiniiiUNiiiiniiuhiininniiuiiriiiiuiiiiiiiuiiniiiiimiiiiniiuiuiiiiiiniiiiiiiiinuiininiiiiiioiuiii 




172 



MIiXICO. 



(k)l(l coins and 1 f^cso silver coins (of the above national coin- 
age) are legal tender to any amount; fractional coin is legal 
tender for amounts up to 20 pesos; nickel and bronze coins up to 
1 peso. The right of coinage belongs exclusively to the Execu- 
tive. There are good bank notes of banks of issue, and these 
pass at their full face value throughout the Republic, serving the 
]>lace of gold, which is seldom seen in circulation. 

For all practical computations, a Mexican peso should be reck- 
oned at $0.50 gold, and $1.00 gold at 2 pesos. 

Since the enactment of the monetary reform (1905) coinage 
has resulted as in the following resume. 

New coinage from May, 1905, to June 30, 1910: 

Gold Pesos. 

In 10 l^eso pieces 59,176,120.00 

5 peso pieces 29,220,380.00 

Silver 

In 1 peso pieces 12,574,000.00 

50 centavo pieces 26,830,619.50 

20 centavo pieces 3,936,923.80 

10 centavo pieces 2,271,000.00 

Nickel 
In 5 centavo pieces 1,110,368.00 

Bronze 

In 2 centavo pieces 200,968.00 

1 centavo pieces 740,950.90 

Total 136,061,330.20 

From 1899-1900 and through the fiscal year 1904-1905 this 
coinage, with the exception of the nickel pieces, was conducted at 
the mints situated in Culiacan, Guanajuato, Zacatecas and Mex- 
ico City. In 1905 the first three ceased operation ; that in Mex- 
ico City produced most of the coins, but in 1905-1906 in Phila- 
delphia were coined 25,000,000 pesos in gold, in 1906-1907 
5,000,000 pesos in gold. In 1906-1907 the mints in San Frarcisco, 
New Orleans and Denver coined some silver. In 1906-1907 the 
mint in Birmingham (England) supplied both nickel and bronze 
coins, but only those of nickel in 1908-1909. 

The coinage of money in 1909-1910 was conducted altogether 
in the Mexico City mint, with the exception of the nickel, 5 
centavo piece, which came from the mint in Birmingham (Eng- 
land). A resume is given thus: 

Number of pieces. Value 

Gold 551,000 5,010,000.00 pesos 

Silver 6,169,000 2,884,000.00 " 

Nickel 4,121,200 206,060.00 " 

Bronze 550,000 5,500.00 " 



Total 11,391,200 8,105,560.00 



BANKS. 173 



Banks. 

Use of the word "bank." — On May 28, 1903, a Presidential de- 
cree was promulgated bearing on this subject, as follows: 

"Article 1. Only corporations legally constituted for the operation of 
institutions of credit, by virtue of concessions granted by the Govern- 
ment, can use the name of 'bank' or its equivalent in any foreign tongue 
as part of their corporate titles or establishments. 

"Art. 2. The charter of any company, of which the word 'bank' or its 
translation into any foreign tongue forms part, can not be recorded in 
the commercial registry unless the articles of incorporation contain offi- 
cial documents proving the existence of a concession granted to said com- 
pany by the Department of Finance and Public Credit, in accordance with 
the provisions of the general law on institutions of credit. 

"Art. 3. Notwithstanding the provisions of Article 1 of this act, native 
or foreign corporations at present existing in the Republic and embody- 
ing in their corporate name the word 'bank,' or its translation into any 
foreign tongue, may continue to use the same name as hitherto, by add- 
ing the words 'without concession' every time they use their commercial 
title. 

"Art. 4. Foreign corporations having, or that may establish, agencies 
or branch houses in the Republic in accordance with Mexican laws, shall 
be entitled to make use of the word 'bank.' 

"In order to enjoy this right, such foreign companies must previously 
obtain a special permission from the Department of Finance and Public 
Credit. This permission will only be granted under such conditions as 
the Department may deem expedient, and when in its opinion it is proved 
that the parent house does a banking business in the country where it was 
founded, and no valid reasons exist for fearing that an improper use will 
be made of the franchise. 

"Art. 5. Within a year from the date of the present law, native or for- 
eign corporations in the Republic using in their corporate name the word 
'bank,' or its translation into any foreign tongue, must either change said 
name by the suppression of such word, or make use of the right granted 
by Articles 3 and 4 of this law. 

"Art. 6. Any action growing out of the violation of the provisions of 
this law, either by the improper use of the word 'bank,' or by failure to 
add the words 'without concession,' when they are required to be used, 
shall be brought ex officio by the prosecutor before the Federal courts, 
and shall be punished by a fine of the second class. If the offender is a 
company, its managers or administrators shall pay the penalty." 

The oldest banking institution of Mexico is the Monte de 
Piedad (National Pawn Shop), which was established in 1775 
with a capital of $300,000, given by Don Pedro Romero de Te- 
rreros. Formerly it possessed the authority to issue notes, but 
this has been revoked and all the notes redeemed. It is now in 
reality a charity, the business of which amounts to over 
$1,000,000.00 annually, but a savings bank department is still run 
in connection with the institution. 

At the end of the fiscal year 1909-1910 (June 30th) there were 
in existence 24 banks of issue (emision), 2 loan (hipotecario) 
banks, and 6 banks of encouragement (refaccionario).^ 



*A list of these banks is given in the Appendix, page 366. 



BANKING. 



175 



The condition of these banks is reported thus : 

Banks of Issue. 
(Bancos de Emision) 
Assets. Liabilities. 

June 30, 1910. 
Pesos. 
Uncalled capital 634,600.00 



Cash 



Gold specie 53,690.870.00 

Silver 27,625,377.00 

Subsidiary coins.. 5,705,834.83 

Gold bullion 2,037,720.62 



Total cash and bul- 
lion 89,059,802.45 

Notes of other banks. 4,515,757.00 



June 30, 1910. 
Pesos. 

Capital 1 18,800,000.00 

Reserve funds 33,209,374.26 

Emergency funds 19,358,161.82 

Deposits payable on 

demand or at three 

days' notice 67,826,271.91 

Time deposits 58,026,027.36 

Notes in circulation.. . 112,160,663.00 
Sundrv creditors 390,247,117.79 



Total liabilities ..799,627,616.14 



Total cash, bullion 

and notes 93,575,559.45 

Public funds, shares 

and bonds 60,402,271.28 

Notes discounted 85,056,939.96 

Loans on collateral... 41,245,501.02 
Loans on mortgage . . 11,816,322.65 

Sundry debtors .494,543,381.03 

Real estate 12,353,040.75 



Total assets. . . .799,627,616.14 

Banks of Encouragement. 
(Bancos Refaccionarios). 
Assets. Liabilities. 

June 30, 1910. June 30, 1910. 

Pesos. Pesos. 

Uncalled capital 1,800,000.00 Capital 47,800,000.00 

■ Reserve funds 2^347^721.16 

Cash: Emergency funds 5,041,097.09 

Gold specie 2,663,610.0(J Deposits payable on 

Silver 173,692.00 demand or at three 

Subsidiary coins. . 139,033.52 days' notice 12,257,661.13 

Time deposits 14,122*21 1.26 

Cash bonds in circula- 
tion 4,893.200.00 

Sundry creditors 51,536,883.71 



Total cash 2,976,335.52 

Bank notes 1,818.302.00 



Total cash and 

notes 4,794,637.52 

Public funds, shares 

and bonds 12,249,173.77 

Notes discounted .... 22.062,725.13 
Loans on collateral... 19,165,078.11 
Loans on mortgage. . . 1,132,910.35 
Loans of encourage- 
ment 2,174,794.29 

Sundrv debtors 73.103,151.00 

Real estate 1,516,304.18 



Total liabilities ..137,998,774.35 



Total assets 137,998,774.35 




Mercantile Bank, Monterrey, State of Nuevo Leon. 



BANKING. 



177 



Loan Banks. 
(Bancos Hipotecarios). 



Assets. 



Uncalled capital 

Cash : 

Gold specie 

Silver 

Subsidiarj^ coins. . 

Total cash 

Notes of other banks. 



line 30, 1910. 
Pesos. 
1,500,000.00 



1,121,270.00 

273,100.00 

43,163.86 

1,437,533.86 
505,960.00 



Total cash and 

notes 

Public funds, shares 

and bonds 

Notes discounted .... 
Loans on collateral . . 
Loans on mortgage 
Sundry debtors . . . 
Real estate 



1,943,493.86 

2,811,054.08 

470,304.61 

1,858,711.73 

46,872,918.47 

11,200,213.37 

975,953.79 



Liabilities. 



June 30, 1910. 
Pesos. 

Capital 10,000,000.00 

Reserve funds 785,572.41 

Emergency funds .... 719,500.00 
Deposits payable on 

demand or at three 

days' notice 2,939,632.94 

Time deposits 1^193,849.85 

Mortgage bonds in 

circulation 44,904,600.00 

Sundry creditors .... 7,089,494.71 



Total liabilities . . 67,632,649.91 



Total assets 67,632,649.91 




Banco de Hidalgo, Pachuca, State of Hidalgo. 



COMMERCE. 179 

CHAPTER VI. 
Commerce. 

The history of the commercial development of Mexico is 
deeply interesting, and the student should follow it step by step 
in the hterature descriptive of the early periods of colonial, im- 
perial and republican development. The natives of the Western 
Hemisphere, even before its discovery and conquest, maintained 
a rudimentary commerce, and in Mexico, among the Aztecs, 
such as were engaged in international trade were highly honored, 
and were designated as Pohtecas. Instead of coins, copper pieces 
in T shape, grains or nuggets of gold, cacao nuts, etc., were 
used. True commerce, which necessarily entailed the use of 
metal coins, did not exist before the conquest, and it was not 
until the Spaniards found that gold and silver were becoming 
scarce that they thought of creating a trade between the new 
possessions and the mother country. 

As a consequence, Spanish vessels loaded with merchandise 
began to arrive at the ports of Veracruz and Campeche, taking, 
on their return trips, immense cargoes of hides, indigo, tobacco, 
dyewoods and other products. This trade increased with the 
estabhshment of the mint in Mexico, the first in the new world, 
but it was hampered to a great extent by the difficulties en- 
countered between Spain and Mexico and the English and 
French pirates who infested the ocean. The port of Acapulco 
was early opened to the products of the Philippine Islands, 
which were so valuable that it was claimed that each vessel 
freighted at Manila had on board merchandise worth 2,000,000 
pesos. 

Trade then sprang up with China, Japan and Peru, so that 
Mexico, in the sixteenth century, was the greatest commercial 
center of the then known world. During the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries domestic trade began to be developed and 
foreign commerce fell off, owing to the constant wars between 
Spain and the various nations of Europe. 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the foreign trade 
of the Republic revived, reaching, it is claimed, the sum of 
25,000,000 pesos for imports and over 16,000,000 pesos for ex- 
ports. Until 1876, however, the unsettled condition of the 
country was a serious impediment to the line of development; 
but as soon as peace was established there began the construc- 
tion of railroads which brought with them increased activity in 
commerce, industries and the arts — in short, of every branch 
of public prosperity and wealth. 



180 MEXICO. 

Domestic Trade. — The domestic trade of the country is made 
up of the intercliange of national prockicts, and of the exchange 
of products of native industry for such as either are not in- 
digenous to the country or if so are produced on too small a 
scale to meet the requirements of native consumption ; hence 
the necessity for importing such goods as are required to make 
up the balance of trade and for using them in interior com- 
merce. The domestic trade of the country had for generations 
been hampered by the alcabala tax, a payment levied through a 
series of interior custom-houses upon transportation of goods 
whene\'er they changed hands. It was equivalent to an inter- 
state tariff, and in some cases it was really a tariff between town 
and town in the same state. 

To the alcabala has been ascribed the decline of the manu- 
factures and agriculture of Spain ; and in Mexico it undoubtedly 
was both an economic and political evil, encouraging as it did 
a sjjirit of exaggerated regionalism, so that the production of any 
part of a country suffering under it must be proportioned onlv 
to its local capacity for consumption. 

The Constitution of February 5, 1857, ordained that by July 1, 
1858, the alcabalas and interior custom-houses should be abol- 
ished throughout the Republic, but this class of taxes had struck 
such deep root in the commercial habits of the country that in 
spite of the Constitution no administration before that of Presi- 
dent Diaz had been able to accomplish their elimination. But 
by measures enacted in May, 1896, and which became effective 
on July 1st, of that year, these alcabalas were suppressed with 
no serious inconvenience or perturbation of economic conditions. 
In fact, as the presidential message of September 16, 1896, de- 
clared, the receipts of the Federal exchequer actually increased 
during the very first months that elapsed after this step had been 
taken. 

Foreign Trade. — Mexico's international commerce has taken 
on a new character since the foundation of the Republic. In 
the first place native industry has been so fostered that the 
natural richness of the soil and the abundant vegetation possible 
in such a variety of climates can respond to the cultivation of it, 
the old dependence upon mineral wealth having lost its un- 
wholesome prominence ; and in the second place the restrictions 
of a false economic policy have been removed, so that there is 
permitted a reasonable exchange of commodities, according to 
which the best market can be sought both for the sale of 
national products and for the purchase abroad of such material 
as best meets the needs of the consuming public within the 
country. 



COMMERCE. 



181 



The accompanying table shows the growth of the foreign 
commerce for the last decade. An analysis of Mexico's trade 
condition in greater detail results as follows i"^ 




248,018,010 



a4-B,740,aoi 



231.100,616 



260,056.220 



-fAii flMtKICJ\>« UHlorf 



Tlie total foreign trade for the fiscal year 1909-10 amounts to 
$227,451,908, United States gold, an increase over the preceding 
year of 17.3 per cent, or $33,640,064.77. The value of exports 
was $130,023,135, against $115,550,309 of the preceding year. 

*This is not a complete analysis of the foreign commerce of the Re- 
public. Further details can be given, however, to those interested in any 
particular subject. In Appendix XI, page 370, are found the headings and 
subdivisions under which Mexico classifies articles imported and exported. 

This Appendix contains also the rules covering passengers' baggage. 



182 MEXICO. 

a net gain uf $14,477,804. The inipurt trade totaled $97,428,773, 
compared with $78,266,513 fi»r the )car previous, a gain of 
$19,162,260. These totals rei)resent a balance of trade in favor 
of Mexico amounting to $32, .599,340. 

The imports, by ])rincipal countries, in order of value were : 

Countries. 1909-10 1908-09 Countries. 1909-10 1908-09. 

United States.$56,439,181 $45,280,775 Canada $1,148,377 $718,214 

Great Britain. 11,125,877 9,897.204 Italy 967,058 900,470 

Germany .... 10,082,662 8.568,765 .Vrgentina 847,526 16,124 

France 8,747,127 6,178,645 British India... 766,162 491,597 

Spain 2,639,841 2,588,671 Austria-Hungary 707,396 609,497 

Belgium .... 1,231,160 952,440 Switzerland ..." 573,327 419,763 

It will be noted, from the above table, that tlie exports into 
Mexico from the countries mentioned show a decided increase 
over the preceding year. Imports from France increased 41.5 
per cent. United States 24.6 per cent, Germany 17.6 per cent, 
C^reat Britain 12.4 per cent. In this year the import trade with 
Argentina resumed the normal proportions from which it fell 
last year. 

( )ther countries sharing notal)l_y in the increase of their ex- 
l)orts to Mexico and not included in the above table were : 

Countries. 1909-10. 1908-09. 

China $240,912 $95,628 

Russia 185,455 35.228 

Portugal 100.931 39466 

Guatemala 21,453 9,591 

British Honduras 16,698 3,564 

I5v world (Hvisions, the increase in imports from Europe 
amounted to $6,315,521.11; from Asia. ■$457,v394.73 ; from 
Africa, $15,085.24; from North America (Canada, $430,163.01; 
United States, $11,158,406.06), $11,588,569.07; from Central 
America. $42,600.77; and from South America, $752,883.30. 

There were slight losses in the import trade from Japan, 
Egypt, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Panama, and Peru, amounting 
in all to approximately $166,250. 

T1t£ imports for the year 1909-10 under eleven major classi- 
fications are as follows ; 

Classification of Imports. 1909-10 1908-09. 

Mineral substances $27,930,414 $22,294,220 

Vegetable substances 21,355,727 14,683,290 

Machines and apparatus 10,473,584 10,060,751 

Textiles and manufactures thereof 10,106,837 7,952,336 

Animals and animal substances 7,505,492 6.284,203 

Chemicals and pharmaceutical products 5,619,165 4,827,861 

Wines, liquors, and beverages 3,276,407 2,783,193 

Vehicles and cars 2,877,097 2,1 56,646 

Paper and its manufactures 2,523,353 2,324,232 

Arms and explosives 1,450,892 1,266,550 

Miscellaneous 4,309,806 3,633,729 



COMMERCE. 183 

Under* the heading of mineral substances, iron and steel 
form the principal items, divided into two classes : First, con- 
struction and industrial material, $11,017,899; and second, manu- 
factures, $2,797,703; total, $13,815,602. Stones, earths, and 
manufactures thereof were imported to the value of $9,203,661. 
Under vegetable substances are classified raw textile fibers, 
$2,465,181; fruits and grains, $10,036,829; wood and lumber, 
$2,750,818; manufactures of wood, $2,297,608. Under textiles 
and manufactures thereof were imported cotton goods, $5,411,- 
467; linen, hemp, etc., $606,237; woolen goods, $2,221,262; silks, 
$1,137,746; silk mixed with other fibers, $622,220; artificial silk, 
$107,902. Under animal substances were : Live animals, 
$693,690; meats, skins, horns, etc., $698,832; animal products, 
canned meats, eggs, butter, cheese, etc., $3,276,666 ; shoes, skins, 
hides, and fur manufactures, $2,836,304. 

The total value of Mexican imports via Gulf ports was $58,- 
529,357.78. The principal Gulf port was Veracruz, with 
$34,674,590.63; next to this came Tampico, $18,477,784.99; 
Progreso, $2,760,624.80, and Coatzacoalcos (Puerto Mexico), 
$1,546,422.74. In order, with lesser amounts, then came 
Frontera, Chetumal, Campeche, Isia del Carmen, Tuxpam, and 
La Ascension. 

Imports via the northern frontier were of the value of $30,- 
907,258.97, received through the 15 custom-houses, the principal 
of which were Laredo, with $13,414,582.26; Ciudad Juarez, $7,- 
496,555.91; Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, $4,654,792.25; Nogales, 
$2,579,505.42, and La Morita, $1,539,943.24. 

Imports via Pacific ports were of the value of $7,896,420.53, 
and the principal ports were : Guaymas, $2,408,033.60 ; Mazat- 
lan, $1,767,912.28; Manzanillo, $1,537,336.83; Santa Rosalia, 
$1,006,584.45; Salina Cruz, $397,675.10, and Acapulco, $267.- 
888.27. In all there were 13 Pacific ports through which imports 
were received. 

Imports of the value of only $95,736.21 came via the southern 
frontier through the two custom-houses, Soconusco, $85,399.87 ; 
and Zapaluta. $10,336.34. 

Practically all of the live animals were imported from the 
United States, $656,265 out of a total of $693,690 coming from 
there. Mexico imported very little fresh meat, but of preserved 
meat and fish, out of a total of $185,232 the United States fur- 
nished $146,390, Norway coming next with $24,272. Of a total 
of canned meats, $1,116,229, the United States supplied $544,141, 
Spain $230,625, and France $102,517. Practically all the eggs 
imported, $107,800, came from the United States, and the same 
can be said of the $1,047,300 of lard. Of butter, $169,800. the 
United States leads with $127,600, followed by Denmark, 

*Figures for only fiscal year 1909-1910 are hereafter quoted. 



184 MEXICO. 

$25,800. In cheese, Holland leads with $135,700, next the 
L'nited States with $90,900, then Spain with $24.fJ00, of a total 
of $275,600. 

Of general leather goods, the importation was $215,000, and 
the United States supplied $89,700, Germany $47,300, France 
$32,400, and Great Britain $25,100 w'orth. Leather bands and 
cables, $183,200, from the United States $120,000, from Great 
Britain $47,500. Cured skins were imported to the amount of 
$480,000, of which $212,700 came from the United States, 
$204,200 came from Germany, and $48,700 from France, France 
sending, as might be supposed, the greatest proportion of gloves. 
Two million and thirty thousand dollars' worth of boots, shoes 
and slippers came into Mexico, $1,400,000 from the United 
States, $95,000 from Spain, and $20,000 from France. 

Almost all the raw cotton imported came from the United 
States, close to $2,000,000. 

Of condiments and cacao, about $575,000 in all, Hindustan 
and the Far East furnished $221,000, but Spain sent $153,000. 
although Venezuela, Santo Domingo, Colombia and Ecuador con- 
trolled the cacao imports. 

Rice, $200,000 in all, $125,000 came from the Far East, but 
the United States sent $28,000, and Germany $15,000. Of dried 
and preserved fruits, over $300,000 were imported, Spain leading 
with $112,000, followed by the United States with $110,000. 
Fresh fruits and vegetables, on the other hand, $237,000, came 
from the United States to the amount of $205,000, and onlv 
$17,500 from Spain. Of preserved fruits, $200,000, the United 
States supplied $90,000, France $44,000, Spain $29,000, and 
Great Britain $12,500. Maize was imported,' $2,700,000 worth, 
almost all from the United States, but both Germany and Argen- 
tina sent recognizable amounts. Forty-six thousand dollars' 
worth of tea was imported, but the United States (as an inter- 
mediary, of course) was credited with $13,500, the rest coming 
from the Far East. Two hundred and thirty thousand dollars' 
worth of olive oil was imported, $137,000 of which came from 
Spain, $85,000 from France, and only $5,000 from the United 
States. Of sugar, $97,000, the United States supplied $89,000 
worth. Flour of various kinds came from all over the world, 
$312,000, but the greatest quantity, $265,000, from the Unite(5 
States. 

Wood for building, and materials made from it, were in de- 
mand. $2,750,000 being imported, of which almost all came from 
the United States, but also Canada. Japan, Spain, France, Ger- 
many and Great Britain furnished varying quantities for special 
purposes. Of furniture. $725,000 worth were brought in, about 
$500,000 of which came from the United States. $87,500 from 



COMMERCE. 185 

Austria-Hungary, and a small but select amount from France. 
Germany, England and Spain. 

Copper, brass and bronze to a sum slightly over $1,125,000 
were imported, most of these metallic supplies from the United 
States. 

Of construction material in steel and iron, with manufactured 
articles of the metal, $14,000,000 worth were imported ; of these 
quantities, by specific articles, the United States furnished $593,- 
000 of fencing, against $52,000 from Germany ; of plows and 
their parts, the United States furnished $448,000. against $46,000 
from Great Britain ; of cables, the United States furnished 
$143,000, against $26,000 from Great Britain and $4,000 from 
Germany; of piping, the total of which amounted to $3,153,000, 
the United States furnished $1,843,000, Germany $65,000, and 
Great Britain $720,000. Other minor items illustrate nearly the 
same relative proportions. 

Italy supplied almost all the sulphur— $14,000 out of $18,500. 
The amount of lime imported was $560,000, of which the United 
States sent $144,000, Germany $170,000. Great Britain $165,000, 
and Belgium $67,000. Of the coal imported, $2,500,000, more 
than $1,500,000 caraa from the United States, about $700,000 
from Great Britain, $206,000 from Canada, $42,000 from Ger- 
many, $3,500 from Japan. Mineral oil, refined and crude, was 
imported to the amount of $2,378,000, the only source of supply, 
besides the United States, being Austria-Hungary with $162,000, 
Great Britain with $98,000, and Germany with $76,000. 

Common bottles to the value of $317,000 were imported, of 
which $177,000 came from the United States, and $100,000 from 
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Sweden and Great Britain supply- 
ing a minor proportion. Of glassware, $733,000, excluding 
mirrors and such special products, as much as $335,000 came 
from the United States, about $125,000 from Germany, $70,000 
from Great Britain and the same quantity from France, chiefly 
articles peculiar to the factories of that country. 

Cotton textiles, the gross importation of which aggregated 
$5,411,000, came in about the proportion of $2,600,6dO from 
Great Britain, and $400,000 from both the United States and 
Germany — Belgium, Spain France and Holland contributing 
specialties in smaller amounts. Cotton clothing came largely 
from Europe, although the amount from the United States is 
increasing noticeably. Of linen and hemp textiles, $606,000 in 
all, Great Britain supplied $225,000. Germany $110,000 and the 
United States $20,000, France and Belgium having as usual their 
share of selected goods. Of woolen textiles. $2,221,000 in all. 
Great Britain supplied $721,000, Germany $440,000 and the 
United States $209,000, France having in this case a large propor- 



186 MEXICO. 

tion of the balance ; of the ready made clothing, however, the 
Lhiited States and France supplied by far the heaviest share. Of 
silk textiles, $1,138,000 in all. $522,000 came from France; 
$171,000 from (rermany ; $130,000 from the United States; 
$32,000 from Great Britain, while from China, Japan and the 
Philippines, strange to say, although goods from those countries 
have long been popular in Mexico, very little was imported, the 
suj)position being that purchase of them was made through other 
sources. In silk goods combined with other textures, France was 
almost supreme. 

Mexico imported drugs and chemicals to the amount of $5,- 
669,000. Of this sum, Germany supplied $1,315,000; the United 
States $1,136,000, and Great Britain $838,000. Again, in this 
case, France and Spain, with other countries, sent respectable 
quantities, but chiefly those for whicli the products are particu- 
larly distinguished. 

Of wines and associated drinks, the sum imported was $3,- 
277,000. Spain supplied $670,000; the bulk of the remainder 
came from France, $1,800,000; from the United States, $280,000; 
from Great Britain, $80,000; and from Germany, $75,000. 

Paper and its manufactures amounted to $2,523,000, the United 
States furnishing $750,000; Germany $400,000; and Great 
Britain $70,000, France and Spain sending specialties, particu- 
larly so as regards music, maps, books and cards. 

Machines and apparatus, one of the largest classifications of 
the Mexican foreign trade, gave a total of $10,470,000, generally 
divided in gross figures as $6,680,000 from the United States; 
Great Britain, $1,446,000; Germany, $1,060,000; representing the 
principal sources of supply, the remainder coming from Austria- 
Flungary, France and Belgium. 

In regard to vehicles, of which Mexico imported $2,877,000. 
one of the chief subdivisions is that of automobiles; of those 
imported, France supplied $194,000, the United States $484,000, 
Germany $84,000 and Great Britain $12,000. Of railway cars, 
the total importation of which amounted to $953,600, the United 
States supplied $873,300, Great Britain $59,000 and Germany 
$20,000. 

Arms and explosives, $1,450,000, of which, in the form of side 
arms and cartridges, there came from the United States the 
value of above $352,000, from France $140,000, from Germany 
$35,000, from Belgium $33,000, and from Great Britain $6,000, 
All the dynamite came from the United States, $543,000. 

One of the most important among the miscellaneous items is 
that of musical instruments, of which $593,000 was the total ; the 
United States contributed $343,000, Germany $206,000, France 
$56,000 and Great Britain $1,000. 



COMMERCE. 



187 



The Gulf ports maintaining custom-houses are Campeche, 
Coatzacoalcos (Puerto Mexico). Chetumal, Frontera, Isla del 
Carmen, La Ascension, Progreso, Tampico, Tuxpam and Vera- 
cruz. The Pacific ports are Acapulco, Altata, Bahia de la Magda- 
lena, Ensenada, Guaymas, La Paz, Manzanillo, Mazatlan, Puerto 
Angel, Salina Cruz, San Bias, Santa Rosalia, and Topolobampo. 
The custom-houses on the northern frontier are Agua Prieta, 
Boquillas, Camargo, Ciudad Juarez, Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, 
Guerrero, La Morita, Laredo, Las Vacas, Los Algodones, Mata- 
moros, Mexicali, Mier. Nogales, and Tijuana; and those on the 
southern frontier are Soconusco and Zapaluta. 

The exports from Mexico, by countries, in order of value, 
were : 
Exports Exports 

by countries. 1909-10 1908-09 by countries. 190'9-10. 1908-09. 

United States.$98,489,319 $86,472,343 Spain $966,920 $614,504 

Great Britain. 14,267,250 12,066,054 Canada 518,180 264,087 

France 6,141,823 5,504,985 Italy 31,924 11,859 

Germany .... 4,222,545 6,429,506 Austria-Hungary 4,879 3,344 

Belgium 3,820,040 2,903,474 Argentina 495 1,150 

While Mexico's export trade increased with nearly every 
country mentioned in the above table, there appears a notable 
falling off in the value of products shipped to Germany, amount- 
ing to nearly $2,250,000 ; the small trade with Argentina was also 
reduced more than a half. 

By world divisions, the increase of exports from Mexico to 
Europe amounted to $1,953,274. During this year Mexico ex- 
ported to Sweden goods valued at $15,648, whereas during the 
preceding year it had no export trade with her. The increase in 
Asia was $2,368; in North America (Canada. $254,093; United 
States, $12,016,976). $12,271,069. In Central America the in- 
crease was very marked, particularly in the trade with British 
Honduras and Guatemala, and totaled $198,150. The South 
American trade showed losses in Ecuador, Peru, and Argentina, 
but the total shows a gain in favor of Mexico amounting to 
$8,129. 

The exports for the fiscal year under five major classifications 
were : 

Classification. 1909-10. 1908-09. 

Mineral products $78,260,458 $72,136,413 

Vegetable products 38,862.402 33,965,277 

Animal products 10,052,092 6,969,673 

Manufactures 1,768,295 1,273,940 

Miscellaneous 1,084,863 1,205,006 

Under the heading of mineral substances, the principal ex- 
ports were: Gold and ores, $21,313,201; silver and ores, $38,- 



COMMERCE.- 



189 



174,561; copper and ores, $13,085,363; lead, $3,404,233; anti- 
mony and ores, $1,093,735; and zinc ores, $575,279. 

The principal vegetable products exported, in order of im- 
portance, were : 

Henequen . . . . $11,048,116 

Rubber 8,380,034 

Guayule 4,734,060 

Coffee 4,003,417 

Chicle 1,704,784 

Garbanzo (Chick-pea) 1,563,720 

Ixtle 1,545,860 

Raiz de Zacaton 1,367,293 

Wood and lumber 1,250,681 

Vanilla 788,539 

Beans 562,177 

Tobacco (unmanufactured) 331,114 

Cotton 230,209 

Dyewoods 213,679 

Among the animal product exports, undressed skins and hides 
rank first with a total of $6,371,592; cattle follows with $2,857,- 
748. Honey is sent out of the country to a small extent, $67,667, 
and pig skins valued at $64,209. 

Of manufactured products exported, sugar leads with a total 
of $720,420 ; palm-leaf hats rank second with $300,937, followed 
by cotton-seed meal and cake $278,681, and manufactured to- 
bacco $175,744. 

Analyzing Mexico's exports more in detail, the principal min- 
erals sent out of the country were gold and gold ores, $21,313,- 
201, almost all of which went to the United States, although 
Great Britain took $1,325,000, Germany $337,000 and Belgium 
$557,000. Of silver, the total was $38,174,561, most of this also 
going to the United States, but Great Britain received $3,902,000; 
Belgium $2,051,000; Germany $743,000, and France $111,000. 
Great Britain took all the antimony, $1,093,735. Of copper and 
its minerals, $13,086,107 in all, the United States received $7,- 
639,000; France, $3,292,000; Great Britain $2,155,000. The total 
lead export was $3,402,361, the United States receiving $2,030,- 
000; Great Britain $797,000; Belgium $413,000, and Germany 
$138,000. Zinc mineral was divided between the United States, 
$467,681: Belgium, $66,293; Germany, $26,279, and Great 
Britain, $15,026. 

The exports of vegetable products were thus divided : Hene- 
quen, to the United States $10,703,000, so that but small quanti- 
ties were left for Great Britain, Cuba and Belgium. Of ixtle, 
$1,545,860, the United States took $1,021,000; Germany $396,- 
(X)0, and Great Britain $52,000, the remainder going to France, 
Belgium and Cuba. France and Germany divided the raiz de 
zacaton about equally between them. The rubber, $8,380,034, 



190 MEXICO. 

\vent larg-elv to the L'nitcd States, $2,415,000, but I'Vance received 
$73f),000, Germany $519,000, Great Britain $213,000. other coun- 
tries in lesser amounts. Guayule went chiefly to the United 
States, $3,768,000, hut Germany took $544,000, and France 
$370,000. Cofifee, the export of\vhich was $4,003,417, was sent 
to the I'nited States for a yalue of $2,415,000; to France, ^737.- 
000: to Germany, $519,000; to Great Britain, $203,000, and to a 
much smaller extent to Canada and the rest of Furope. Chicle 
went almost altogether to the United States, either direct or 
through Canada and British Flonduras. The beans (chick peas. 
garban::os). $1,563,720, went largely to Spain, although Cuba 
took $304,000 and the United States with Puerto Rico $333,000. 
(H tlie wood and lumber exported, the value of $740,000 went 
to the Ignited States, and over $380,000 to Great Britain, but 
British Honduras is accredited with $62,000, part of whicli must 
have gone to (ireat Britain. 

Of unmanufactured tobacco, $331,000 in all. Belgium received 
$196,000, Germany $90,000. and the United States. Cuba and 
Peru, each only small quantities. 

Animal products constitute the third largest division of exports 
from Mexico. The princi]3al article is that of skins, of which 
cattle ires) hides form the larger proportion. The export of 
these amounted to $3,994,000. of which $3,685,000 went to the 
United States, $132,400 to France. $127,000 to Germany, the 
other European countries taking but small quantities. Of goat 
skins, $2,008,000 were sent abroad, the United States receiving 
$1,954,000. France $133,440, and but small quantities to ( iermany 
and Spain. The United States took most of. the deer, alligator 
and sheep skins. Cattle, $2,518,000, went almost altogether to 
the United States, but Guatemala received $139,000 worth. 

^Manufactured products form the smallest class. The chief 
articles are sugar, $720,000, practically all to Great Britain : palm 
hats, $301,000, practically all to the United States; and manu- 
factured tobacco, i^racticallv all to France, with small allotments 
to Germany and Great Britain. 

All products from the Republic pass through the same classi- 
fied ports as goods brought into the country. From the Gulf 
ports were sent abroad $77,164,305 ; from those on the Pacific 
Ocean, $7,040,442; across the southern frontier, $338,122; and 
across the northern frontier, $45,480,267. The total of exports 
was therefore $130,023,135. in the fiscal year ending Tune 30. 
1910. 



RAILROADS. 191 

CHAPTER VII. 

Means of Communication. 

Railroads. 

In 1854 a line of about 16 kilometers (9.94 miles) was placed 
in operation between Veracruz and Tejeria. In 1854 the first 
section, about 4 kilometers (2i^ miles) of what afterwards be- 
came the Mexican Railway was finished, connecting the City of 
Mexico with Guadalupe. This was the beginning of the remark- 
able railway development that has taken place in the Republic 
within the last half century. Before that, means of communi- 
cation_ were limited to wagon roads and bridle paths ; diligencies 
were in service, sometimes litters (Uteras) were employed, but 
in the best of circumstances it was a bone-breaking trip of three 
days from the capital to the coast, a distance easily covered to-day 
in 12 hours. 

_ The French army, during the war of intervention in 1862, car- 
ried the Tejeria section as far as Paso del Macho (both of these 
places are stations on the present Mexican Railway) at the foot 
of the mountains, a distance of 77 kilometers (47.8 miles). 
About this time an English syndicate, which had a concession 
from the Government to build a road from the capital to Vera- 
cruz, extended the Guadalupe line, the entire distance being 
completed and the main line formally inaugurated January 1, 

It is from this period that the era of railroad development 
dates, new impetus being given to this branch of the public ser- 
vice when General Diaz became President of the Republic in 
1876. From 1877 to 1882 Mexico built more miles of railroad 
than any other Latin-American country, the average yearly con- 
struction during that period being 689 kilometers (428 miles). 
In 1875 there were 578.28 kilometers (360 miles) of road; in 
1886, 5,915 kilometers (3,675 miles) ; in 1888, 7,940 kilometers 
(4,933 miles) ; in June, 1892, 10,233 kilometers (6,358 miles) ; 
m September, 1894, 11,100 kilometers (6,897 miles) ; in April, 
1897, 11,469 kilometers (7,126 miles), and at the end of 
1900 there were 13,615 kilometers (8,460 miles) completed under 
Federal concession. This takes no account of the lines extended 
under concessions from the States, which, for the most part, 
were not then railways in the usual sense of the word. 

From the beginning of the twentieth century construction has 
been even more rapid. In 1905 the length of line amounted to 
16,991 kilometers (10,557 miles), and according to the message 
of the President on September 16, 1910, the one-hundredth anni- 
versary of the independence of the Republic, there were then in 
operation 24,559 kilometers (15,260 miles, including 4.840 kilo- 



192 MEXICO. 

meters — 3,007 miles — subject to the jurisdiction of the Slates) 
of railway in the Republic. 

Most of these railways in Mexico have obtained suljsidies from 
the CJovernnient, ranging from $6,000 to $10,000 per kilometer 
( kilometer = 0.621 mile) according to the difficulty of the work, 
and these subsidies have contributed largely to the prosperity of 
the roads, as the proceeds have been used not only to build the 
line l)Ut also to pay. in some cases, the interest on tlie bonds. 

The policy of the Mexican Government toward railroad con- 
struction and the management of the lines in the Republic had 
been from the beginning one of encouragement of private inter- 
ests. Foreign capital had been largely instrumental in extending 
and developing this industry, and the benefit to the country at 
large has been of remarkable value. Early in the twentieth cen- 
tury, however, the far-sighted genius of Minister Limantour 
(Minister of Finance) changed the relation of the Government 
to the railways, and made the association a more intimate and 
active one by the purchase, in 1903, of il,000,000 of 4^ per cent 
Second Debenture Stock of the Interoceanic Railway. This pur- 
'chase led soon afterwards to a further investment by the Mex- 
ican Government in railway stock, this time with the expressed 
object of exerting its particular interests both on the policy and 
routine management of the National Railroad Company, the cor- 
poration the stock of which was acquired by the Government. 
This action took place when Minister Limantour visited New 
York and Europe in 1903, and while in the former city, in ]\Iay, 
concluded with Speyer and Company an arrangement whereby 
the IMexican Government became the owner of a block of shares 
of the Mexican National, wdiich gave it a preponderating in- 
fluence in the councils of that corporation. 

The Government then acquired the following holdings : 

Preferred shares 100,000 

Second preference shares 93,439 

Deferred shares 106,288 

Total number of shares 299,727 

This amount represented 47i/< per cent of the total number of 
shares issued, which was 634,137, while to secure an absolute 
majority only 17,343 shares were lacking, which could easily be 
acquired at a slight outlay at any time. 

These initial steps of the Mexican Government's policy toward 
the great trunk lines, and the attitude of the Government toward 
them and the transportation problems in general, are best ex- 
plained by Minister Limantour in a speech which he delivered 
before the Chamber of Deputies on December 14, 1906, in asking 
the Legislature to pass the Enabling Act. 



RAILROADS. ' 193 

"When, in the year 1903, the Government acquired a majority of stock 
of the Mexican National it was thought that it would not be necessary 
to take any further steps in that direction. But circumstances have 
changed to such an extent that the Executive has been led on, little by 
little, to the solution now presented to the Chambers. At that time the 
object had in view was to defeat a combination which, if it had been 
realized, would have jeopardized the country's interests and restricted the 
liberty of the public powers. Fortunately the object of the Government 
proved possible of realization in such manner that the combination to 
which I have referred, and which was no other than the projected merger 
of the Mexican National and the Mexican Central, was baulked, thanks 
to the purchase by the Government of a controlling interest in one of 
the corporations. 

"The Federal Government did not think it would be necessary to con- 
tinue along that course and, in fact, made various declarations to that 
effect, stating that the measures which it had taken were in reality meas- 
ures of protection for the country; that the attitude which it would 
thenceforth assume would be passive and that it did not intend to meddle 
in railway management. This purpose, gentlemen, was adhered to for 
some time, and had it not been for unforeseen circumstances, the Gov- 
ernment would assuredly have been satisfied with having secured the con- 
trol of the Mexican National and would have done nothing toward 
securing a controlling interest in other railways. But the persons and 
firms interested in the Mexican Central were at that time in a peculiar 
situation, due in part to difficulties of a financial nature surrounding their 
property, and in part to the apprehension which they entertained that, 
with the Government a holder in the Mexican National, the interests of 
the two systems might in time come into collision, which, according to 
their view, would seriously affect the prospects of their property. 

"It seems to me unnecessary to tell you that the Government has taken 
scrupulous care to do nothing that might be interpreted as an act of 
hostility to interests which, though at first sight they might seem rival in- 
terests, are not so in reality. It was not the Government's idea to regard 
the shares which it had bought as a source of profit. It had secured the 
control of the National for much more elevated ends, as you well know. 
But all this did not suffice to give the persons interested in other trans- 
portation systems the necessary confidence in their ability to expand their 
business without coming into conflict with the Mexican National. 

"I have just alluded to the pecuniary difficulties in which the Mexican 
Central was involved. The fact is that the company in question had de- 
veloped its system with considerable rapidity and some of its lines had 
cost a good deal of money to build and had not proved very profitable. 
Those lines naturally were a drag on the entire system to such an extent 
as to make it difficult for the company to meet its obligations. As the 
majority of the company's bonds mature in 1911, that is to say, four 
years hence, the directorate of the Central could not contemplate with 



ISH MEXICO. 

indiflfercnce the approach of that dale witlioiu inakiny at least an effort 
to save the situation. 

"On the other haiul. \ou are familiar with the asi)i.-ct offered by the 
transportation question in the neighboring nation. The problem there is 
only one phase of the trust question which may be characterized as a 
peril. Those great corporations are being extended every day, and many 
of them cover considerable areas of territory. The tendency to expan- 
sion has been so pronounced in recent years that it may be said that the 
aim of most of the financial interests controlling the great transportation 
systems of the United States is to absorb as many other lines as possible. 
The United States Government, alarmed by this tendency and desirous of 
initiating a reaction against it, has, as you well know, taken action which 
aims at combatting those organizations and checking their continued ex- 
pansion. Under these circumstances it was natural that we, on our side, 
should endeavor to prevent the powerful corporations in question, at- 
tacked as they being, by all legal means in their own country as well 
as harassed by the pressure of public opinion, from coming hither and 
seeking to absorb those Mexican railways which are not already under 
the direct control of the Government. 

"There was another reason. The railways of Mexico have been con- 
structed not in accordance with any pre-determined plan, but in accord- 
ance with the requests made from time to time by concessionaires for 
permission to connect such and such regions with such and such others. 
Unity of conception has, therefore, been lacking in the location of our 
railways, which have been the creation of circumstances, of individual 
interests and of transient necessities. This lack of a uniform plan was 
bound to be attended with somewhat undesirable results, as far as the 
distribution of transportation facilities and the satisfaction of the coun- 
try's general and local needs are concerned. Regions of considerable im- 
portance are not yet connected by rail with the rest of the country, 
whereas there are other regions which have not only one but two or three 
lines, paralleling one another and competing for a traffic which would 
barely be sufficient for one. 

"As long as each of the railway corporations preserved its individual 
identity, the Government could not easily undertake to remedy this situa- 
tion, but through a railway merger it will be possible to correct many 
evils, especially that of parallel lines. There are some lines naturally 
which ofifer greater advantages than others either in grade or curvature 
or by reason of the character of the territory which they serve. When 
traffic is handled by the cheapest route, the railways are able to earn 
greater profits and it is possible to grant reductions in rates, whereas if 
traffic has necessarily to be carried over a given route the operating com- 
pany is perforce saddled with the higher cost of transportation. It is a 
very different thing, for example, to bring up freight to the Central 
Tableland from Tampico over the line connecting that port with San 
Luis Potosi, which has gradients of AYz per cent, from bringing up that 
same freight over the line connecting Tampico with Monterrey on which 



RAILROADS. 195 

the gradients are only 2 to 2y^ per cent. Such a difference in the matter 
of railway operation is of considerable moment, gentlemen, and the eco- 
nomic 'routing' of freight can not be accomplished unless the lines in- 
volved are the property of a single corporation. 

"It seems unnecessary to mention the other savings that can be effected 
when railway systems are the property of a single corporation instead of 
belonging to several. 

"Thus, there are three main arguments for the incorporation of the 
two great systems— the National and the Central: First, to avoid fric- 
tion between different corporations when the two are competing lines, or 
when one of them fears being antagonized by a concern in which the 
Government holds a controlling interest; Second, to avoid the absorp- 
tion of properties, not controlled by the Government, by one of the great 
railway systems of the United States; and Third, the prospect of realiz- 
ing considerable economies through the consolidation of all the great 
railways under a single management." 

The policy of the Mexican Government, inaugurated thus for- 
mally in 1906, was logically carried out, and the beginning of 
1909 witnessed the consummation of the idea in the merger of 
the lines and properties of the National Railroad Company of 
Mexico and the Mexican Central Railway Company in the na- 
ture of a new corporation having its headquarters in Mexico 
City, in which the Mexican Government has a controlling inter- 
est. The Government's absolute majority stockholding is as 
under: 

SPIARES CONSTITUTING THE CAPITAL STOCK. 

Authorized Issue 

First preferred shares 60,000,000.00 pesos 

Second preferred shares 250,000,000 00 " 

Common shares 150,000,000.00 " 

Total 460,000,000.00 pesos 

Of this amount the Government owns : 

First preferred shares received in exchange for 
First preferred shares of the National Railroad 
of Mexico 20,000,000.00 pesos 

Second preferred shares received in exchange for 
Second preferred shares of the National Rail- 
road of Mexico, at the rate of 110 of the for- 
mer for 100 of the latter 20,556,580.00 " 

Second preferred shares received in exchange for 
Mexican Central shares 40,000,000.00 " 

Common shares received in exchange for de- 
ferred shares of the National Railroad of 
Mexico 21,988,000.00 " 

Common shares received as part compensation 
for the Government's guarantee 127,460,000.00 " 

Total of shares belonging to the Nation 230,004,580.00 pesos 



196 MEXICO. 

This forms a working majority of the stock of these two im- 
portant railroad systems of the country, and with this command- 
ing position the (Government has instituted its program. 

The 24,559 kilometers ( 15,260 miles) of railway in the Re- 
public are best considered under the two great heads — the system 
owned and controlled by the Government, and the systems still 
owned and managed in the interests of the private management. 
The first division is comprehensively included in the corporation 
known as the National Railways of Mexico. 

National Railways of Mexico ( Ferrocarriles Nacionales 

DE Mexico). 

This company was incorporated by Presidential decree dated 
July 6, 1907. It was organized on March 28, 1908, under a law 
of the Congress of the United States of Mexico enacted Decem- 
ber 26, 1906, and under the above decree of 1907. The duration 
of the corporation is 99 years from July 6, 1907. By this decree 
it is provided, among other things, as follows : 

"Article 2. The object of the company shall be to take over and unite 
the properties of the National Railroad Company of Mexico and the 
Mexican Central Railway Company, Ltd., with powers to acquire, con- 
struct and operate any other railroad lines within the national territory, 
and to do, enter into and carry into eifect every kind of act, transaction 
and contract relating to the purpose of the law of December 26, 1906; 
enjoying, in consequence, in order to accomplish the purposes of its con- 
stitution, the following powers and authorities : 

"Section 1. To acquire, own and operate in whole or in part and by 
any legal title, the concessions, rights and properties of the National 
Railroad Company of Mexico and of the Mexican Central Railway Com- 
pany, Ltd., and of any other company or undertaking which may own or 
operate lines of railway or of transportation by land or by water, or any 
service appurtenant to the same. 

"Section 2. To acquire and own by any legal title, shares, whether 
preferred, ordinary, common or deferred, bonds or obligations, and, in 
general, securities of any class, of National Railroad Company of Mexico 
or of Mexican Central Railway Comgany, Ltd., or of the other com- 
panies or undertakings mentioned in the preceding section and whose 
properties shall be situated wholly or partly within the national territory; 
with power to exercise all the rights- inherent in such shares, bonds or 
obligations and securities." 

The principal office of this corporation is Calle de Vergara, 
No. 209, in the City of Mexico, and general offices are main- 
tained at 25 Broad Street, New York City. 



198 Mi;.\ico. 

The National Railways of Mexico (Ferrocarriles Nacionalcs de Mex- 
ico) owns by direct ownership the properties formerly known as the 

Standard .nauge. Kilometers Miles 

Mexican Central Railway, main line and branches... 5,659 3,516 

National Railroad of Mexico 1,96(J 1,218 

Narrow gauge. 

Uniapan Division (National Railroad) 512 318 

Michoacan & Pacific Railway (Leased) 92 57 

Hidalgo and Northeastern Railway (National Lines) 244 152 

Total 8,467 5,261 

(N. B. — The decreased mileage, as compared with 
earlier reports, is due to accurate remeasurements.) 

Sidings and yards 1,022 635 



*Grand total 9,489 5.896 

This corporation has possession of the Texas Mexi- 
can Railway, from Laredo Bridge to Corpus Christi, 
but as the property lies in Texas, it is not included 
within Mexican figures ; the length of this line is 261 
kilometers = 162 miles. 

The National Railways of Mexico control* 
Standard gauge. 

Mexican International Railroad 1,476 917 

Tehuantepec National Railway (Main line 190 miles, 

branches 30 miles) 354 220 

Veracruz and Isthmus Railroad 425 264 

Pan-American Railway 478 297 

Narrow gauge. 

Interoceanic Railway 1,184 736 

Mexican Southern Railway 454 282 

Total 13,860 8,612 



*The Mexican-Pacific Railway is now included in the Mexican Central 
Railway statement above, as part of the section between Guadalajara to 
Colima. 



RAILROADS. 199 



Independent Railroads. 

Among the larger companies operating railways in the Republic the 
following deserve mention : 

Kilometers. Miles. 

Mexican Railway (standard gauge) 547 340 

Kansas City, Mexico and Orient (standard gauge).. 444 276 

Mexican Northern Railway (standard gauge) 130 81 

Mexican North Western R. R. (standard gauge) 589 366 

Controlling the Chihuahua and Pacific Railroad, 
and the Sierra Madre and Pacific R. R. and 
Rio Grande, Sierra Madre R. R. 
Parral and Durango Railway (standard 57 miles, 

narrow 8 miles) 105 65 

Potosi and Rio Verde Railway (narrow) 64 40 

Southern Pacific Railroad of Mexico (standard) ... 1,923 1,195 

Controlling the Sonora Railroad, and the 
Cananea, Yaqui River and Pacific R. R. 

Veracruz Railways (narrow) 72 45 

United Railways of Yucatan (standard 103 kilo- 
meters, narrow 707 kilometers) 810 503 

Total 4,684 2,911 

To these larger lines must be added many miles of 
smaller and local roads that are used in mines, or 
are under State jurisdiction, as well as sidings, very 
recent extensions and certain extensions of electric 
traction, amounting altogether to 6,015 3,737 

The lines controlled directly by the Government have 

been shown to amount to 13,860 8,612 



Grand total 24,559 15,260 

As the railways already named are of decided interest in the 
study of the development of Mexico, a slight history and de- 
scription of each is appended. 

The Mexican Central Railway {El Ferrocarril Central Mexi- 
cano) is the result of the amalgamation of different government 
concessions. The fifst one granted was in 1874 for the construc- 
tion of a line from the Capital to Leon via Queretaro, Celaya, 
Salamanca, Irapuato, Guanajuato and Silao. By a decree of 
April 3, 1880, the Government transferred this concession to a 
Mr. Robert Symon, an Englishman, who had interested capital- 
ists in Boston, Massachusetts. The road had already been in- 
corporated in that State on February 25, 1880, and the above 



200 



MEXICO. 



nauif was adopted. In 1881 the concession was granted, by the 
State of Chihuahua, for extension to Paso del Xorte on the 
Texas frontier. The entire main line was opened for operation 
from the City of Mexico to El Paso, Texas, April 2, 1884. Other 
lines and concessions were gradually acquired, such as that fronf 
Aguascalientes to San Luis Potosi and Tampico, the Coahuila 
and Pacific Railroad, the Mexican Pacific Railway, the extension 
from Saltillo to Paredon, and the Guadalajara branch, from 
Ira])uato to Ameca. A final statement as to Government aid re- 
ceived by the Mexican Central Railway under concessions 
granted it shows that it amounted to some $25,500,000, not in- 
ckuHng subventions on properties acquired by purchase, the na- 
tional subsidy on the main line having been $15,200 per mile 
($9,000 per kilometer). On February 1, 1909, the properties of 
the Mexican Central Railway Co., Ltd., were taken over by the 
merger company, the National Railways of Mexico. The main 
line extends from Mexico City to (Paso del Norte) Ciudad 
Juarez, opposite El Paso, Texas, and the important branches are 
those to Tampico, to Monterrey, to Cuernavaca, and to Guada- 
lajara, recently extended through Colima to the Pacific port of 
Manzanillo. 

The National Railroad Company of Mexico (Fcrrocarril Na~ 
Clonal dc Mexico) was based on a concession granted by the 
Government on September 13, 1880. The plan was to construct, 
somewdiat as a competitor to the Central system, a narrow gauge- 
railroad between Mexico City and the northern frontier, more 
direct than the earlier line, with probable extension to the port 
of Manzanillo on the Pacific Ocean. Under this contract the 
railway company received from the Government a subvention of 
$7,000 per kilometer (about $4,375 per mile) for the line north 
of Acambaro, and concessions ranging from $7,000 to $8,000 
per kilometer ($4,375 to $5,000 per mile). A newer contract 
placed all construction of a uniform basis of $7,000 per kilo- 
meter ($4,375 per mile) guaranteed by certain customs receipts. 
After various modifications in the plans and some delays in the 
w'ork the last spike was driven in the completion of the trunk 
line between Mexico City and Laredo, September 29, 1888, and 
definite passenger and freight service were established on No- 
vember 1st of the same year. This road was originally narrow 
gauge, but in 1901 the work of changing this to standard gauge 
was begun, and completed in 1903, improvements of many kinds 
being introduced at the same time. The new through service 
on standard gauge was inaugurated November 8, 1903. In 1903 
also the Government became the owner of a block of shares of 
the Mexican National, and on January 1, 1909, the properties 
of the National Railroad Company were taken over by the mer- 
ger company, the National Railways of Mexico. The main line 



RAILROADS. 



201 



extends from the City of Mexico through Acambaro, San Luis 
Potosi, Saltillo, Monterrey, to Nuevo Laredo, opposite Laredo 
in Texas. The important branches are those from Monterrey 
to Matamoros, in the State of Tamaulipas, opposite Brownsville, 
Texas, near the mouth of the Rio Grande (the Texas-Mexican, 
in the State of Texas, from Laredo to Corpus Christi), the In- 
teroceanic Railway (see below), the narrow gauge Uruapan 
(State of Michoacan) division (see table on page 198). Lines 
leased and controlled by this system are the narrow gauge 
Hidalgo and Northeastern Railway from Mexico to Beristain, 
State of Hidalgo, and the Michoacan and Pacific Railway, also 
narrow gauge, from the station Maravatio to Zitacuaro, State 
of Michoacan. 

The Interoceanic Railway {Fcrrocarril Interoceanico) is the 
result of a concession to build a road via the City of Mexico to 
connect Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico and Acapulco on the 
Pacific Ocean. The original dates from April, 1878, but a re- 
vised concession was granted February 13, 1883. The main line 
(narrow gauge) extends from Veracruz to the City of Mexico 
through Jalapa, with an important branch to the city of Puebla, 
once on the main line. Other branches are the Morelos Division, 
Los Reyes to Puente de Ixtla (State of Morelos) ; Matamoros 
Division, Los Arcos to Cuautla (State of Morelos) ; Atencingo 
to Tlancualpican (State of Puebla). The Interoceanic Railway 
controls also the Mexican Eastern Railway (Ferrocarril Orien- 
tal Mexicano), a working company with branches to Tezuitlan 
and San Nicolas (State of Puebla). The Mexican Southern 
Railway {Fcrrocarril Mexicano del Snr) was taken over on Jan- 
uary 1. 1910. It is proposed to convert the main Hne of the Inter- 
oceanic Railway between Veracruz and the City of Mexico to 
standard gauge. 

The Mexican International Railroad Company _ {Ferrocarril 
Intcrnacional Mexicano) was organized in the United States in 
1882 to acquire concessions granted by the Mexican Government 
in 1881 and 1882 to construct and operate a line of railroad and 
telegraph between the City of Mexico and the Rio Grande at 
Ciudad Porfirio Diaz (formerly Piedras Negras), with the right 
to construct branches to the Gulf of Mexico at some point be- 
tween Veracruz and Matamoros, and to the Pacific Ocean at 
some point near Mazatlan ; in place of subsidies, the Govern- 
ment obligated itself not to grant a subvention to any other line 
within 25 miles on either side of the International. The con- 
cessionaire at the time was the late Collis P. Huntington, one 
of the constructors of the Southern Pacific in the United States. 
Connected with the International are small branches to the coal 
beds in Coahuila, where coal is mined and marketed in a com- 
mercial wav. The property passed, on Mr. Huntington's death, 



202 



MEXICO. 



into the control of the Mexican National, and in 1909 the neces- 
sary shares of the company were jinrchased from tlie Southern 
Pacific Company, so that the International system has now been 
incorporated into the National Railways of Mexico (Ferroca- 
rrilcs Nacioialcs dc Mexico). The main line extends from 
Ciudad Porfirio Diaz at the Texas frontier to Torreon, where it 
crosses the Mexican Central Railway, and then to Durango, cap- 
ital of the State of the same name. There are important 
branches to Monterrey (State of Niievo Leon), and to Tepe- 
huanes. a rich mining district in the State of Durango. 




A Lady of Tehuantepec. 

The Indian women on the Isthmus of Tehuan- 
tepec are noted for their animation, good 
looks, and business acumen. The native cos- 
tume is the huipil (a lace-Hke ornament over 
the head and down the back). 



RAILROADS. 203 

The Tehuantepec National Railway (Compafiia del Ferroca- 
rril Nacional de Tehuantepec) is a company subject to the Mexi- 
can laws and domiciles in Mexico. Its aim is the management, 
assigned to it by the Government, of the Tehuantepec National 
Railway as also of the ports of Puerto Mexico (formerly Coat- 
zacoalcos) and Salina Cruz connected with it, together with all 
plant and appurtenances floating, movable or immovable belong- 
ing to them. The Company, therefore, is an operating company, 
as the railroads, ports and all belonging to them are the property 
of the Government ; it cannot purchase real estate for itself. The 
Company has the right and at times the obligation to establish 
shipping lines in the Pacific and Atlantic, and in the Gulf of 
Mexico for trading along the coasts of the Mexican Republic 
and to and from foreign ports. The working character of this 
company is a partnership between the Mexican Government and 
Messrs. S. Pearson & Son, Ltd., of London. Its activity is di- 
rected toward the management of the Tehuantepec Railway. 

The passage of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec has been the am- 
bition of all statesmen from Cortes to Diaz. The former pro- 
jected it, the latter finished it. The colonial governments rea- 
lized its importance, and surveys were made, the most noticeable 
being that of Cramer, in 1774, who advocated a canal in this 
region. Successive republican administrations gave attention to 
plans for creating a route here, some advocating a canal (in con- 
nection with the Coatzacoalcos River), others a combination of 
stage coach and navigation, or an ordinary railway, and the well- 
known engineer James B. Eads proposed a ship railway. Sev- 
eral concessions were granted — all insisting that the Government 
must own the line — one in 1878, that to Eads in 1881, although 
no work on the ship railway was done, others in 1882, 1888, and 
in 1892. Under Mr. Stanhope, one of the last concessionaires, 
a railroad across the Isthmus was completed, but it had been 
piecemeal work that needed reconstruction, and furthermore it 
was found that terminal ports, equipped for modern shipping, 
would have to be provided. The result was that in 1896 Con- 
gress authorized the Government to enter into a unique part- 
nership with the firm of S. Pearson & Son for the development 
and exploitation of the Tehuantepec Railway and terminal ports. 
The first contracts were signed in 1898 and 1899, but the present 
agreement dates from 1902, with slight modifications approved 
in May, 1904. This contract of partnership is to last 51 years 
from July 1, 1902. The firm of S. Pearson & Son manage the 
corporate property, the working capital being $7,000,000, fur- 
nished in equal shares by the two partners, and the surplus earn- 
ings above operating expenses to be divided, with an increasing 
scale, beginning at 65%, to the Government. 



204 



\i i:.\U(). 



The Isthmus of Tehuantcpec is situated in the States of Vera- 
cruz and Oaxaca. The shortest distance from ocean to ocean in 
a straight hue is 125 miles (201 kilometers) over comparatively 
level ground, the higliest ])oint. at Chivela Pass, being only 730 
feet (222y2 meters). The main line of the Tehuantepec Na- 
tional Railway itself, from Puerto Mexico ( Coatzacoalcos ) to 
Salina Cruz, is 304 kilometers (18'^ miles), and there are 
branches to San juan l'"vangelista to the north, and to Alinatitlan 
on the Coatzacoalcos River, to the south. Modern docks and 
machinery are at both ports, the depth of the harbor at Salina 
Cruz being 10 meters (33 feet) and at Puerto Mexico 9 meters 
(30 feet). At Santa Lucrecia connecti(^n is made with the J'cra- 




The Drawbridge at Salina Cruz. 

This device is operated by electricity. The entrance from the Pacific 
Ocean to the outer harbor is 600 feet, but to the inner harbor, through 
this bridge, the passage is only 90 feet, between solid masonry piers. 



cntc al Istluno Raihvay from the north, and at Gamboa with the 
Pan-American Railway from the south as far as the Guatemalan 
frontier. On January 1, 1907, President Diaz in person opened 
the Tehuantepec Railway to the commerce of the world. 

Veracruz and Isthmus Railroad Company (Ferrocarril Vera- 
cni.z al Isthmo) was incorporated in 1898 as the Veracruz and 
Pacific Railway under the laws of the State of West Virginia, 
and work was pushed by the contractors, against great difficul- 
ties, up to 1904, when the company was taken over bv the Mexi- 



RAILROADS. 



205 



can Government, under the laws of which the new company was 
formed the same year, and the existing lines brought absolutely 
under the Government's control. The main line runs from 
Cordoba, on the Mexican Railway, to Santa Lucrecia, on the 
Tehuantepec National, and a branch leaves the main line at 
Tierra Blanca. running in a general northern direction for 61 
miles (98 kilometers) to Veracruz. A new branch line of 43 
miles (71 kilometers) is under construction between Rives and 
San Andres Tuxla. 

Pan American Railway (Feirocarril Pan Americano) was in- 
corporated in 1901 under laws of the State of New Jersey. It 
was completed on April 1, 1909. There is a branch line from 
Tonola, 21 kilometers (13 miles), to Puerto Arista, 21 kilometers 
(13 miles), in operation. The main division starts from Gamboa, 
on the Tehuantepec National Railway, and passes through the 
State of Chiapas to the frontier of Guatemala 457 kilometers 
(284 miles). After crossing the Suchiate River between the two 
Republics, connection will be made with the Guatemala Central 
Railway, thus forming one more link in the line covered by the 
general term Pan American Railway. 

Mexican Southern Railway {Fcvrocarril Mexicano del Sur) 
dates from a concession originally granted in 1886 to the then 
Governor of the State of Oaxaca, for the construction of a rail- 
way from the station of Tehuacan, in the State of Puebla, to 
the capital of the State of Oaxaca. In 1888 this was modified 
to the extent of authority to build from the city of Puebla to the 
city of Oaxaca, and to extend from the latter to the Isthmus of 
Tehuantepec. The road was built with English money, assisted 
by certain subsidies from the iMexican Government. The line 
was opened to Oaxaca in November, 1892, by President Diaz in 
person, wdio on that occasion availed himself of the opportunity 
of journeying for the first time by rail to his native city. On 
the reorganization of the company in 1905-1906 the Government 
obtained control of the road with the money paid in exchange 
for the subsidy bonds. A tramway system of 35 miles (56 
kilometers) is worked in connection with the Mexican Southern 
Railway. 

The Mexican Railway {Fcrrocarril Mexicano) was incorpor- 
ated in 1864, and is consequently the first railway organized and 
operated in the Republic. It is said that the Government, of 
that time, insisted that the clause of the concession be literally 
carried out; namely, that the road be constructed from the City 
of JNIexico to Veracruz, thus necessitating the transport of ma- 
terial from the seaport to the interior before it could be used in 
building the line. The main division, formally inaugurated by 
President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada on January 1. 1873. con- 
nects Mexico City with Veracruz, and parallels the old tradi- 



206 MEXICO. 

tional trail of the Indians and of Cortes from the coast to the 
plateau. It is one of the great scenic routes of the country, and 
in fact of tlie world. 

Kansas City, AJexico and Orient Railway (Fcrrocarril dc 
Kansas City, Mexico y Oricntc) was incorporated in 1900 under 
the laws of Kansas, and legalized in Mexico. It was formed to 
construct a line from Kansas City to Topolobampo Bay, Mexico, 
about 1.629 miles (2,782 kilometers), of which 899 miles 
(1.447 kilometers) are in operation, including leased track, but 
within the borders of Mexico, a distance of 634 miles (1,014 
kilometers), there are as yet but 276 miles (444 kilometers) in 
this system. The Company receives a subsidy from the Gov- 
ernment and from certain of the States. In Mexico the main 
line runs from Falomir, 63 miles (101 kilometers) from the 
frontier to the City of Chihuahua, thence south over the Chi- 
huahua and Pacific Railway, operated under a lease, 120 miles 
( 194 kilometers) to Minaca, continuing to Sanchez on its own 
line ; construction is proceeding southwest from this place, to 
connect with the section already in operation between Fuerte and 
Topolobampo (on the coast), a distance of 62 miles (100 kilo- 
meters). A very rich and productive section of the Republic 
will be served by this railway, and from the harbor of Topolo- 
bampo it is planned to establish ocean connections to many parts 
of the Pacific and the Far East. 

Mexican Northern Railway (Ferrocarril Mexicano del Norte) 
was incorporated in 1890, under the laws of New York State, 
and has in operation a standard gauge road between Escalon, on 
the Mexican Central Raihvay, and Sierra Mojada, a mining camp 
in the State of Chihuahua, a distance of 81.35 miles (129 kilo- 
meters). 

Mexico Northwestern Railroad Company {Ferrocarril Nor- 
Oeste de Mexico) was incorporated in 1909 under the laws of 
the Dominion of Canada for the purpose of providing northern 
Mexico with railroad facilities, of acquiring and developing tim- 
ber lands and carrying on a timber business, and to purchase the 
three following lines : 

(1) Chihuahua and Pacific Railroad {Ferrocarril Chihuahua 
al PaciUco), incorporated in 1897 in New Jersey, and receiving a 
Mexican concession of 1891, built and finally leased the line be- 
tween Chihuahua and Miiiaca, with branches, now leased to the 
Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway (q. v.). 

(2) Sierra Madre and Pacific Railroad {Ferrocarril Sierra 
Madre y Pacifico), which starts from Temosachic on the La Junta 
branch of the Chihuahua and Pacific, and terminates at Madera. 
It is chiefly a lumber line penetrating a densely wooded region. 

(3) Rio Grande, Sierra Madre and Pacific Railroad {Ferroca- 



RAILROADS. 207 

rril Rio Grande^ Sierra Madre y Paciiico) was granted a conces- 
sion in 1887 for the construction of various lines in Lower Cali- 
fornia and in the States of Sonora and Chihuahua, and another 
in 1896, to build from Ciudad Juarez, State of Chihuahua, to 
Corralitos, in the same State, from which point connection is 
made with the Sonora Railroad at Magdalena. This latter con- 
cession, from Corralitos to Magdalena, has been forfeited. The 
road is popularly known as the Corralitos Railway, and pene- 
trates a country rich in agricultural, mineral and forestry re- 
sources. 

Parral and Durango Railway (Ferrocarril Parral y Durango) 
was incorporated in Colorado in 1898, and uses a concession of 
the same year, for the construction of a railway from the mining 
camp of Minas Nuevas, Chihuahua, to the Lagunas de Juanota 
(State of Durango), but that portion of the system built and in 
operation consists of a main line 44 miles (70 kilometers) long 
from Minas Nuevas to Mesa de Sandia, in Durango, and a line 
from Rincon on the main line to Parral, 5 miles (8 kilometers), 
on a branch of the Mexican Central running to Jimenez, State 
of Chihuahua, on its main line. 

Potosi and Rio Verde Railway {Ferrocarril Potosi y Rio 
Verde), a short road, acting under a New York charter and a 
special charter from the Mexican Government of 1898, is in 
operation to Ahuacatal, in the State of San Luis Potosi, from 
San Luis Potosi (city), a distance of 38 miles (60 kilometers). 
In the latter place connection is made with trains on the system 
of the National Railways of Mexico. 

Southern Pacific Railroad of Mexico (Ferrocarril Sud-Paci- 
iico de Mexico) is the name of the recent consolidation into a sin- 
gle system, in Mexico, with the exception of the Sonora Railway, 
of the lines controlled by the Southern Pacific system of the 
United States. The concession dates from 1905, and carries a 
subvention of 12,500 pesos per kilometer (20,116 pesos per mile). 
This company has virtually absorbed what has hitherto been 
called the Cananea, Yaqui River and Pacific Railroad, which 
has constructed lines from Nogales and Naco, on the Mexico- 
Arizona border, to Cananea, a copper producing center in the 
State of Sonora, and down the west coast of the Republic (on 
the Gulf of California) from the port of Guaymas to Mazatlan, 
and continuing toward Tepic, will ultimately reach that city, the 
capital of the Territory of the same name, and the city of Guad- 
alajara, capital of the State of Jalisco, where connection is made 
with the National Railways of Mexico for the eastern and south- 
ern portions of the Republic. Regular through service is now 
given from the State of California to Yago. The Sonora Rail- 
road {Ferrocarril de Sonora) is that portion of the Southern 



208 MEXICO. 

Pacific system in Mexico operated under lease from the Atchi- 
son, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Company (dated 1898), from 
Xogales to Guaymas, in Sonora, a distance of 265 miles (427 
kilometers). Several branches of the Southern Pacific Railroad 
Company of Mexico connect important places on both sides with 
the main line. 

\'cr;uTUz (Mexico) lvaih\a_\s, Ltd. { J'crrocarrilcs dc I cra- 
cnt.7 Mexico ( Liiiiitada } , has an original concession which is 
dated 1875, modified by laws of 1878, 1888, 1900 and 1901. The 
principal line connects X'eracruz and the town of Alvarado, 43 
miles (70 kilometers) south of \eracruz, where connection is 
made with steamers plying on the interior rivers southward 
parallel to the coast, as far as San Juan Evangelista, 177 miles 
(224 kilometers) from Alvarado. At San Juan Evangelista a 
branch of the Tehuantepec National Railway — 17 miles (28 kilo- 
meters) — runs to Juile. In this way a second route from Vera- 
cruz to the Isthmus is open. 

Ignited Railways of Yucatan [Fcrrocarrilcs Unidos dc Yiica- 
faii) is a system formed through a consolidation of lines for- 
merly independent and all owned by hemp planters of the Penin- 
sula of Yucatan. There are four divisions — the Northern, be- 
tween Merida (the capital of Yucatan) and Progreso, its sea- 
port, and between Merida and Izamal, all standard gauge; the 
Eastern, between Merida and Valladolid, with two branches, all 
narrow gauge ; the Western, connecting Merida with Campeche, 
capital of the State of the same name, and two branches, all nar- 
row gauge ; and the Southern, between Merida and Peto. with 
one branch, narrow gauge. 

Numerous short railway lines and connecting links in the Re- 
public are not mentioned, since many of them are becoming ab- 
sorbed in the great systems developing under modern conditions. 
The tramways, which are in Mexico classed as belonging to rail- 
ways, are to be found in the descriptions of the cities in which 
they are operated, in the various States. 

The Republic of Mexico can be approached at five principal 
points from the United States by established railway connec- 
tions: at Matamoros, across the Rio Grande from Browmsville, 
Texas (by the international bridge recently opened) ; at Nuevo 
Laredo, opposite Laredo, Texas ; at Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, op- 
posite Eagle Pass, Texas ; at Ciudad Juarez, opposite El Paso, 
Texas ; and at Nogales, part of the larger city on both sides of 
the dividing line between Sonora and Arizona. Other points of 
contact with railway approaches exist, but they have not as yet 
been developed into through lines. 

Across the southern border, from the Republic of Guatemala, 
an international bridge has recently been opened, across which 
connection is made to the interior of that countrv. 



RAILROADS STEAMSHIPS. 209 

Railway extension is one of the features of progress of Mex- 
ico, and new regions are opened each year. The more notice- 
able projects at this time (1911) are to continue the railway 
from the city of Oaxaca southward to meet the Tehuantepec 
National Railway near Salina Cruz, and to construct a line from 
some point on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec through the State 
of Tabasco and into Campeche, so as to bring these three States 
into rail communication with the capital — Mexico City. At 
present the State of Tabasco and the Territory of Quintana Roo 
have no railways. 

The chief seaports of the Republic of Mexico are, on the east 
coast, naming them from north to south : Matamoros,* Tam- 
pico,* Veracruz,* Puerto Mexico (Coatzacoalcos)*, Frontera, 
Campeche,* Progreso,* and Xcalak (Territory of Quintana 
Roo). On the west coast, from north to south, Ensenada and 
Magdalena Bay (on the Pacific), Santa Rosalia and La Paz 
(both on the Gulf of California) on the peninsula of Lower 
(Baja) California ; Guaymas*, Topolobampo*, Mazatlan*, San 
Bias*, Manzanillo*, Acapulco, Salina Cruz* and San Benito 
(Soconusco). Other harbors will be mentioned in the descrip- 
tion of the individual States. 

Steamships. 

Steamship communication from ports on the east coast is 
maintained regularly. Coastwise service, under the Mexican 
flag, is carried on by the 

Compatiia Mexicana de Navigacion, S. A., calling at all Mexi- 
can Gulf ports with four round trips a month. (Agency, Vera- 
cruz.) With foreign ports there are the following lines: 

New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company (Ward Line), 
from New York (via Havana to Progreso and Veracruz, or to 
Tampico direct), weekly sailings. Agency, in Mexico City, 
Calle Cinco de Mayo No. 16; in New York, Pier 14, East River. 

Mexican-American Steamship Service (Wolvin Line), from 
Texas City, Texas, and from Galveston, Texas, to Tampico and 
Veracruz, and also to Puerto Mexico (Coatzacoalcos), sailings 
every ten days. Agencies, in Mexico City, Texas City, and New 
Orleans. 

Atlantic and Mexican Gulf Steamship Company, from Mobile, 
New Orleans, Galveston to Veracruz, Puerto Mexico (Coatza- 
coalcos), and Progreso. Monthly (freight) sailings. Agency, 
general, 92 Beaver Street, New York. 

Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, from Southampton (Eng- 
land) via Spanish ports and Havana, to Veracruz, and from 
Antwerp (Belgium), cargo steamers to Tampico and Puerto 

*These have railway connections with the interior. 




> 



fin 



CL, 



STEAMSHIPS. 



211 



Mexico (Coatzacoalcos). Monthly sailings. Agencies, New- 
York, 22 State Street ; Mexico City, la Calle San Juan de Letran 
No. 5 ; Veracruz, Avenida Morelos, No. 7. 

Hamburg-American Line, from Hamburg, via Havre, South- 
ampton and ports in Spain, and Havana to Tampico, Veracruz 
and Puerto Mexico (Coatzacoalcos) ; with freight service from 
Hamburg via Antwerp (Belgium). Sailings every two weeks. 
Agencies, New York, 45 Broadway; Mexico City, 2a Calle de 
Tacuba; and in Veracruz, Tampico and Puerto Mexico. 

Compagnie Generale Transatlantique, from Saint-Nazarre 
(France) via Coruna, Santander and Havana to Veracruz. 
Monthly sailings, with freight service to Tampico and Puerto 
Mexico. Agencies, New York, Calle de Gante No. 11, City of 
Mexico, and at Veracruz and Tampico. 

Compafiia Transatlantica de Barcelona, from (Genoa, Italy) 
Barcelona and Cadiz, Spain, calling at New York and Havana; 
another service from Bilbao, Spain, calling at Santander, Coruna 
and Havana. Monthly sailings to Veracruz, Puerto Mexico and 
Tampico. Agencies, Pier 8, East River, New York ; at Veracruz, 
Puerto Mexico and Tampico. 

The Cuban Steamship Company, from London via Bermuda, 
and from Antwerp via Havana, returning to Europe via Galves- 
ton, Texas. Monthly sailings. Head office in London. Agen- 
cies, Veracruz, Puerto Mexico and Tampico, and la Calle San 
Juan de Letran No. 5, City of Mexico. 

Harrison Line, Leyland Line, from Liverpool (with a monthly 
steamer from Glasgow) via New Orleans (on return trip). Bi- 
monthly sailings. Agencies, Cinco de Mayo No. 16, City of 
Mexico ; and at Veracruz, Tampico and Puerto Mexico. 

Norway-Mexico Gulf Line, from Christiania, Norway, a 
monthly service to Veracruz, Tampico and Puerto Mexico, re- 
turning via Galveston. Agencies, Cinco de Mayo No. 16, City 
of Mexico; and at Veracruz, Tampico and Puerto Mexico. 

Elder-Dempster Line, of Liverpool (also called Canadian 
Line), from Montreal, Canada (from Halifax in winter), 
monthly sailings. Agencies, Calle San Juan de Letran No. 5, 
City of Mexico ; and at Veracruz, Tampico and Puerto Mexico. 

The steamers of these companies are equipped for passenger 
accommodation, although not all of them are on such a regular 
schedule as to insure definite arrival or departure from these 
ports. Regular weekly sailings are also maintained by Ameri- 
can-Hawaiian Steamship Company (Tehuantepec Route) be- 
tween New York (or Philadelphia) and Puerto Mexico, connect- 
ing with steamers at Salina Cruz for the west coast and the 
P'ar East. This is a freight line only, but occasionally carries 
passengers. 



212 MEXICO. 

Steamship communication from ports on the west coast is 
maintained regularly. Coastwise service, under the Mexican 
flag, is carried on by the 

Compahia Navicra del Pacifico, with a fleet of coasting steam- 
ers plying at frequent intervals between national ports. It is sub- 
sidized by the Government. Agencies, head office Mazatlan, 
State of Sinaloa, Mexico ; and at Guaymas, Salina Cruz and 
Other ports on the Pacific coast, as well as at 3a Calle de Santa 
Teresa, City of Mexico. 

With foreign ports there are the following lines of communi- 
cation : 

Pacific Mail Steamship Company, from San Francisco to Ma- 
zatlan, San Bias, Manzanillo, Acapulco, Salina Cruz, and San 
Benito, continuing to Panama, and returning over the same 
route. Sailings regularly every ten days, but on some of the 
trips certain ports are omitted. Main office, San Francisco, with 
agencies in all ports, and Calle Cinco de ]\Iayo 6-1 *>, City of 
Mexico. 

Pacific Coast Steamship Company, from San Francisco to 
ports in Lower California, and to Guaymas and Mazatlan. 
Monthly sailings. Main office San Francisco, California, with 
agencies in ports of North Mexico. 

Kosmos Line, from Hamburg, London and Havre, calls at 
Mexican ports to and from San Francisco, and touches at west 
coast ports of Central and South America also. Agencies at all 
ports, as well as Calle Gante No. 11, City of Mexico. 

Canadian Mexican Pacific Line, of Vancouver, from Van- 
couver via Mexican ports, to Salina Cruz, with monthly sailings. 
Agency, Vancouver, Canada. 

Toyo Kisen Kaisha (Japanese Steamship Company), from 
Tokyo, Japan and Chinese ports, to Manzanillo, Salina Cruz, 
continuing to Callao, Iquiqui and Valparaiso, in South America. 
Agencies, Salina Cruz and San Francisco. 

Salvador Railway Company, Steamship Service, from Salina 
Cruz, has five services: 1, every six days to Ocos, Champerico 
and San Jose, in Guatemala; 2, every ten days to Acajutla, Sal- 
vador; 3, every twelve days to La Libertad and La Union, Sal- 
vador; 4, every twenty-one days to El Triunfo, Salvador, to 
Amapala, Honduras, and to Corinto, Nicaragua; 5, every ten days 
to San Benito, Mexico. Agencies, the Salvador Railway Com- 
pany, Ltd., San Salvador, Republic of Salvador, Central Amer- 
ica ; and at Salina Cruz, Mexico. 

American-Hawaiian Steamship Company (Tehuantepec 
Route), between Salina Cruz, every six days to California, every 
twelve days to Portland, Puget Sound and Honolulu. This 
company is under the same operation as that on the north ter- 
minus of the Tehuantepec National Railway. 



POST AND TELEGRAPH. 213 

Besides these regular lines, numerous vessels enter and leave 
the principal Mexican ports for cargoes. As a rule they carry 
no passengers and the date of arrival or departure can not be 
given in advance. 

Navigation on the interior waterways is carried on by steam- 
ers of light draught. Some of them have fixed schedules and 
conduct a heavy traffic, but information about them is best se- 
cured from local agents, as the itineraries are subject to modifi- 
cation through weather and business influences. 

Post and Telegraph.* 

The Mexican Government has spared no efifort to add m 
every way possible to the efficiency of the postal and tele- 
graph service of the Republic, and at times this has been a very 
arduous task. In 1885 the Government was confronted with a 
large disproportion between the receipts and expenditures in the 
service, being indebted in large amounts to publishers of peri- 
odicals't mail contractors, and to nations with which Mexico 
had accounts connected with the transport of mail matter. These 
debts have now all been paid and the service is to-day m a flour- 
ishing condition, paying at least its own expenses. 

Prior to 1877 there were throughout the Republic but 53 cen- 
tral and 269 branch post offices ; in 1877 the number had risen 
to 313 and 685 respectively; in 1894 to 483 and 974; in 189j to 
475 and 974; in 1900 to 635 administration offices, 22 branch 
stations and 1,315 agencies; in 1905 the total number of post 
offices had increased to 2,402, and in 1910 to 2,843 post offices 
of different kinds in the Republic. 

During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, the number of 
pieces carried in the post office of the Republic was only 24,- 
773,636; in 1900 this had increased to 134,631,009; in 1905 to 
178.357,805 ; and in 1910 the total movement for the fiscal year 
was 202,000,000. 

In the matter of national and international postal money or- 
ders the same growth prevailed. In 1895 the number of those 
issued was only 23,972, all for internal use, as an international 
exchange had not been reported ; in 1900 there were 566,364 na- 
tional and 11,213 international orders, with a total revenue to 
the Government of 146,087 pesos; in 1905 the number of na- 
tional orders was 1,147,475, of a value of 44,949,983 pesos, pro- 
ducing a revenue of 291,842 pesos; and of international orders 
40,399, of a value of 1,054,034 pesos, producing a revenue of 

*Post Office abbreviations are given in Appendix, page 333. 

tUnder the Mexican regulations of that date postmasters acted as col- 
lectors of subscriptions and advertising bills, etc., due the publishers of 
newspapers. 



POST OFFICE. 



215 



8,054 pesos. Since that date this branch of the post office has 
steadily increased its activity. 

The total revenue derived from the post office in 1900 was 
2,009,326 pesos; in 1905, 3,450,732 pesos; and in 1911, basing it 
upon the revenue of 1910, it will be 4,650,000 pesos. 

The post office in Mexico is under the jurisdiction of the De- 
partment of Communications and Public Works. The Postmas- 
ter General is therefore a subordinate of the Minister of Com- 
munications and Public Works, who holds a Cabinet position. 




Grand Stairway of the General Post Office, Mexico City. 



216 MEXICO. 

(The title in Spanish by which ot^cial communications should 
be headed is Senor Director Goicral dc Correos, Mexico (D. F.), 
Mexico.) Postal affairs in general in Mexico are subject tu the 
provisions of the Postal Code of 1894, the Rules of Practice of 
August 1, 1895, and subsequent rulings. 

In international postal relations Mexico adjusts her methods 
and rules to the various conventions of the Universal Postal 
Union, which the Republic joined in 1879, and to the special con- 
ventions into which she has entered with various foreign coun- 
tries, relating principally to the postal money order service and 
the parcels post. 

Post offices (oficiiias dc correo) are to be found in most towns 
of the Republic. The larger cities have branches (siicursales) . 
Street boxes (bi{.':ones) for the mail are usually red, and are 
thereby distinguished from the telegraph boxes, painted blue. 
P. O. Box is, in Spanish, Apartado. 

Postal rates, for national service, are regulated by the class 
into which articles fall. 

First-class — Personal correspondence, and objects forwarded 
in a closed envelope or wrapper. 

Second-class — Newspapers and periodicals, school books of 
primary instruction and works of art. 

Third-class — ^Printed matter not comprised in the second- 
class, and business papers. 

Fourth-class — Samples of no commercial value. 

Fifth-class — Postal parcels containing merchandise. 

Inland service. Urban service. 

On first-class matter, letters, etc., of which the 

correspondence can not be examined 5 centavos 2 centavos 

The limit of weight for matter of this class is 
5 kilograms (11 pounds), and the maximum 
dimensions are 20 by 10 by 5 centimeters (8 
by 4 by 2 inches) ■.••.• - " ^ 

On second class matter, newspapers, periodi- 
cals, etc., for every 500 grams or fraction 
(17^ oz.) 2 " 2 

On third class matter, ordinary printed ma- 
terial and business papers, for every 100 
grams (SV^ oz.) the limit of weight being 
the same as for letters 1 " 1 

On fourth class matter, for every 100 grams 
or fraction (3^2 oz.), maximum weight 300 
grams (10^/^ oz.) ; maximum dimensions, 30 
by 20 by 10 centimeters (12 by 8 by 4 inches) 1 " 1 " 

On' fifth class matter, parcels, for each parcel 
not exceeding 500 grams (17^ oz.) in 
weight _• • • • ^2 12 

For every 500 grams in excess, up to five kilo- _^ _^ 

grams (17^^ oz. to 11 pounds) 12 " 12 



POST OFFICE. 217 

Other restrictions and regulations govern the distribution of 
postal matter within the Republic, but it should be added that 
the service is well administered, speedy and safe. All five classes, 
in the interior, may be registered, but second-class matter then 
becomes third-class. The registration fee is 10 centavos, in ad- 
dition to the regular postage, with additional fee of 5 centavos 
for acknowledgment of delivery. Such articles may also be sent 
C. O. D. for an amount not exceeding 100 pesos, on additional 
payment of 10 centavos. This C. O. D. collection must be made 
as an ordinary postal money order. 

Postal rates, for international service, are payable according 
to the classification into letters, post-cards, post-cards with an- 
swer prepaid, printed matter, commercial papers, and samples. 
To foreign countries (with the exception to the United States, 
Canada and Cuba) the rate is 10 centavos for each 20 grams 
(0.70 oz.) or fraction, the maximum weight being 2 kilograms 
(4.4 pounds). For simple post-cards it is 4 centavos. Printed 
matter pays 2 centavos for every 50 grams (1^ oz.) with maxi- 
mum weight of 2 kilograms (4.40 pounds). Commercial papers, 
that is, all documents not having the character of personal cor- 
respondence, pay 10 centavos for 250 grams (8^ oz.), adding 
2 centavos for each 50 grams (1.7 oz.) up to 2 kilograms (4.4 
pounds). Samples must be without commercial value, with 
maximum weight of 350 grams (123 oz.) and minimum payment 
for 100 grams (3^ oz.) of 4 centavos. 

All forms of mail matter for abroad may be registered, if prop- 
erly addressed, by additional payment of 10 centavos. 

The postal rates to the United States, its possessions and the 
Canal Zone, Canada and Cuba, are in general the same as those 
within the Republic of Mexico itself. 

Parcels Post Conventions. 

Mexico has conventions for the reciprocal handling of postal 
parcels with the United States (concluded April 28, 1888), 
Great Britain (February 15, 1889, February 25, 1897, and De- 
cember 1, 1908), Germany (May 24, 1892, and January 28, 1908). 
France (December 10, 1891, May 28, 1907, and July 6, 1907). 
Cuba (April 30, 1904), El Salvador (October 12, 1906), Canada 
(May, 1909), Nicaragua (October 11, 1907), and the Danish 
West Indies (May 26, 1909). 

In general, the weight fixed is a maximum of 5 kilograms ( 1 1 
pounds), with prepaid postage at the rate of 12 centavos for 
each 460 grams (1 pound). Different regulations of a minor 
degree apply to each country, and the person remitting a parcel 



218 MEXICO. 

is advised to consult the post office official in regard to each par- 
cel. All countries to reserve the right to collect an additional 
fee for internal delivery. 

Postal AIonev Orders. 

The Mexican Post Office conducts a system of interior postal 
money orders, and has conventions for the regular exchange of 
money orders with the following countries : United States 
(Convention concluded in September, 1899, and amended Con- 
vention signed at Washington on February 2, 1909, and in Mex- 
ico March 8. 1909) ; Great Britain (March 18, 1904) ; Germany 
(March 7, 1005); France (May 10, 1905); El Salvador (Oc- 
tober 30, 1905) ; Italy (February 13, 1906) ; Canada (May 15, 
1906) ; and xVustria-FIungarv ( signed at Vienna January 16, 
1909, and in Alexico March 6, 1909). 

The maximum of ordinary interior money orders is 100 
pesos, but orders may be drawn for larger sums with permission 
of the Department of Communications. The cost of an order is 
10 centavos for the first 10 pesos, and 5 centavos for every 10 
pesos or fraction above that amount. 

Foreign money orders are issued in accordance with the con- 
vention of the particular country. Between Mexico and the 
United States (the Canal Zone and the Philippine Islands to be 
reached through the Post Office Department of the United 
States as intermediary), the maximum amount for a single order 
is $100.00 (gold), 2 pesos Mexican being taken as an exchange 
equivalent for one dollar gold. The cost is .in most cases that 
for interior money order. 

Between Mexico and Great Britain (and Ireland) the maximum is 200 

pesos or £20. 
Between Mexico and Germany, 200 pesos or 400 marks. 
Between Mexico and France, 200 pesos or 500 francs. 
Between Mexico and El Salvador, 200 pesos or $100.00 (United States 

money) . 
Between Mexico and Italy, 200 pesos or 500 lire. 

Between Mexico and Canada, $100 gold, or equivalent in Mexican money. 
Between Mexico and Austria-Hungary, 200 pesos or 500 francs (in which 

the Austrian money order is payable). 

Under Mexico's conventions with Great Britain and Germany, 
through the postal administrations of these two countries, money 
orders can be drawn by Mexico on almost all foreign countries, 
.as well as on British and German possessions, and vice versa. 



TELEGRAPH AND CABLE LINES. 219* 

In the postal service of Mexico certain articles can not be 
carried : 

(I) Uncancelled postage stamps of current issues. 

( 2) Bank-notes, cheques and other documents payable to bearer. 

( 3) Jewels and precious stones. 

( 4) Coins of all kinds, except sample collections of Mexican coins> 

( 5) Precious metals. 

( 6) Live animals, except bees. 

( 7) Dead animals, if not stuffed. 

( 8) Fruits and vegetables subject to decomposition. 

( 9) Explosives and inflammable substances. 

(10) Foreign lottery tickets. 

(II) Obscene or immoral literature. 

(12) Articles constituting a danger to postal employees. 

(13) Articles liable to soil other correspondence, or to be offensive to> 

smell. 

Telegraph and Cable Lines. 

The interior telegraph service is on the same footing as the 
Post Office in that it is a Government monopoly. The railway 
companies have telegraph lines, but they are exclusively for the 
use of the roads, and are available only for passengers telegraph- 
ing en route. The telegraph lines of the railways are not al- 
lowed to handle a general commercial business. 

The Federal System, like the Post Office, is subject to the 
jurisdiction of the Department of Communications and Public 
Works. Some of the State Governments own telegraph lines 
within their State boundaries, and occasionally the Federal Gov- 
ernment takes over such lines under a lease ; occasionally alsa 
the Federal Government leases portions of its lines to a State 
Government. 

In addition to its aerial lines, the Federal Government owns 
a submarine cable, 735 kilometers (457 miles) in length, from 
Veracruz to Frontera and from Frontera to Campeche, in the 
Gulf of Mexico ; two shorter submarine cables, one from Jica- 
nalgo to Ciudad del Carmen, 4.78 kilometers (3 miles) and the 
other from Ciudad del Carmen to Isla Aguada, 4.86 kilometers 
(3 miles) ; subfluvial lines aggregating 18.37 kilometers (11/^ 
miles) ; subterranean lines totaling 6.89 kilometers (10 miles) ; 
and three wireless (Telefunken system, Berlin) installations, one 
furnishing communication between Cape Haro, near Guaymas, 
Sonora, and Santa Rosalia, Lower California, across the Gulf 
of California, 160 kilometers (100 miles) ; another between 
Mazatlan, Sinaloa, and San Jose del Cabo, Lower California,. 



TELEGRAPH AND CABLE LINES. 221 

320 kilometers (199 miles) ; and the third, a short line, between 
Payo Obispo and Xcalak, Territory of Quintana Roo. 

The Republic of Mexico, in common with the principal 
European and South American countries, has a system of gov- 
ernment telegraphs which furnishes good service at very mod- 
erate rates — the government's purpose being to supply tele- 
graphic facilities to the people at cost. The rates are extremely 
low ; a 10-word telegram can be sent from one end of the country 
to the other for only 1 peso; and for shorter distances the rates 
are proportionately less. Night telegrams are accepted for trans- 
mission between 10 P. M. and midnight at one-half the day rates. 

Standard Morse instruments are used, also the regular Morse 
alphabet, with a few changes necessary to adapt it to the Spanish 
language. The lines are built with both iron and wooden poles, 
and both glass and porcelain insulators are used. The wire 
chiefly employed in the construction of the lines is No. 8 gal- 
vanized iron telegraph wire. 

In the Federal District, within which lies the capital, there is 
a cheap and convenient card-telegram service. Cards about the 
size and shape of postal cards are sold for 5 centavos (2^/2 cents 
United States currency) each, and have spaces for the address, 
a 10-word message, and the signature of the sender. Such a 
card, after being filled out, may be deposited in one of the nu- 
merous boxes that are placed similarly to letter boxes at street 
intersections and other important points and from which collec- 
tions are made at short intervals. The cards thus collected are 
telegraphed from the nearest branch office to the branch which 
is in the district within which the addressee lives and from there 
delivery is made by the regular messengers. This card-telegram 
service is largely employed by the Mexican people for social as 
w^ell as for business purposes. 

The Federal telegraph system of Mexico is an extensive one. 
There are 491 telegraph offices in the Republic, with 23 telephone 
stations and 6 wireless telegraph stations. Nearly 4,500,000 tele- 
grams were transmitted over the Federal lines during the fiscal 
year ended June 30, 1910, and these telegrams contained a total 
of over 70,000,000 words. The receipts from all sources during 
the year exceeded 2,000,000 pesos. 

The Government maintains a school of telegraphy, the teachers 
of which are, in the main, officials of the Federal telegraphs. 
The course in this school is designed to impart a practical 
Tcnowledge of telegraphy, but the general theory of electricity is 
also taught, together with other subjects such as arithmetic, 
algebra and geometry, adding to the general culture of the stu- 
dents. The young men who complete the course secure posi- 
tions in the Federal telegraph service. The tuition in the tele- 



999 



MEXICO. 



graph school is free, the Government's object being to supply 
trained telegraphers to its Department of Federal Telegraphs. 

The Director-General of the Mexican telegraph system is 
under the Department of Communications and Public Works, 
above mentioned. 

The following is a detailed statement of the system for the 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1910: 

Number of offices : 

Equipped with Morse telegraph instruments 491 

Equipped with radio-telegraphs 6 

Equipped with telephones 23 

Total 520 

Length of lines : Kilometers. 

Extent of system 36,133 

Total length of wires 74,254 

Length of cables: Meters. 

Submarines 745,539 

Subfluvial 17,548 

Subterranean 7,489 

Total 770,576 

Volume of correspondence : 

Telegrams transmitted from July 1, 1909, to June 30, 1910 4,443,519 

Words contained in the same 70,108,888 

Telephonic messages transmitted for telegraph service. . 23,337 

Words 328,982 

Financial statement: Mexican pesos. 

Received from national correspondence 1,775,134.40 

From international correspondence 292,977.35 

From telegraphic orders 106,091.69 

From other sources 51,443.03 

Total 2,225,646.47 

The number of emplovees of the Federal system is somewhat over 
3,000. 



The Federal telegraph system has a working arrangement with 
the Western Union Company in the United States, and through 
it handles messages to and from the United States and Europe. 



PART II. 

Federal District, States and Territories. 

Mexico is a Republic consisting of a Federation of 27 States, 
three Territories and a Federal District. 

The legislature of each State exercises jurisdiction over all 
matters not entrusted by the Federal Constitution to the Federal 
Congress. This Congress, in addition to the legislation over 
which the Federation has exclusive jurisdiction, also enacts laws 




San Francisco Avenue, Mexico City. 



224 MEXICO. 

for the Government of the Federal District and the Territory of 
Lower California. The Territory of Tepic is governed by the 
Codes of Jalisco, and the Territory of Ouintana Roo is governed 
by the Codes of Yucatan, .lyiintaiiiii'iifos (Municipal Councils) 
enact local ordinances. 

The Governor of each State administers the State laws. In 
each administrative division of the State resides a State official 
known as the Jefe Politico, under the control of the State Gov- 
ernor, who performs both administrative and quasi-judicial func- 
tions. I\Iost of the States maintain bodies of State police, under 
the control of the Jcfcs Politicos of the district. In cities and 
towns local ordinances are enforced by the President of the 
Municipal Council. In all towns of any importance municipal 
police are provided. 

Each State has its district judge of the First Instance and a 
Supreme Court. The Government is represented- in the Courts 
by an Attorney-General and by local public attorneys, whose func- 
tions extend not only to criminal cases but also, in certain in- 
stances, to civil cases. 

Petty crimes and misdemeanors are dealt with by the Judges of 
the Peace. The Judges of the Civil Status have charge of the 
Civil Register, in which is recorded all acts and facts concerning 
births, guardianships, marriages and deaths. This register is in 
duplicate, one copy containing the original data and judicial acts 
and findings in the respective cases, and the other, copies thereof. 
Proof must be taken from the original book if possible, or in case 
of the loss, destruction or mutilation of the original, then from 
the duplicate register. If both are lost, facts regarding the civil 
status may be established by extrinsic evidence. These registers 
are the most authentic evidence of the civil status of residents in 
Mexico — both Mexicans and foreigners — and are kept by the 
judges under strict provisions as to their personal responsibility 
for errors. 

Although each State has adopted its own Civil Code, that of 
the Federal District is of the greatest importance to foreigners 
because, first, their business is generally transacted in Mexico 
City, which is tributary to the Federal District ; second, because 
the Civil Codes of all the States and of the Federal District pro- 
vide that the parties to a transaction may select the place for its 
performance, and may submit themselves especially to the laws 
and tribunals of any jurisdiction, even when the transaction re- 
lates to real estate not located in that jurisdiction ; and, third, 
because in most cases the Federal and the State Civil Codes are 
practically identical. 

A Commercial Code, applicable to the whole Republic, has been 
adopted by the Federal Congress, under its general powers. This 
Commercial Code covers all transactions and questions arising in 



FEDERAL DISTRICT. 225 

connection with commerce on land and sea, domestic or foreign, 
the organization and operation of the various kinds of commer- 
cial associations, partnerships and corporations, the business of 
warehousing, the making of loans, the purchase and sale of mer- 
chandise, the insurance business in all its branches, negotiable in- 
struments, all the transactions included in the law merchant, 
transportation contracts, maritime commicrce, and bankruptcy. 

Certain taxes are payable in special stamps. This is in addi- 
tion to the various operations on which stamp duties are paid 
(as enumerated in the Stamp Revenue Law), and for which the 
general issue of revenue stamps can be used. The following are 
the chief of these taxes : 

Stamps of the Federal Contribution, paid throughout the States 
of the Federation, but not in the Federal District and Territories. 
It is the contribution of the various States to the expenses of the 
Federal Government. It is payable by a special stamp, and con- 
sists of 21 per cent of all taxes paid collected in State or munic- 
ipal revenue offices. 

Special stamps in which specific taxes are paid: 

(a) Taxes on Mines and on Gold and Silver. 

(b) Taxes on Cotton Yarn and Textiles. 

(c) Taxes on Manufactured Tobacco. 

(d) Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages. 

(e) Interior Taxes on Dynamite and Explosives. 

(f) Dues for Patents and Trade-Marks. 

(g) Dues on Weights and Measures. 

A description of each political subdivision of the Republic 
follows : 

THE FEDERAL DISTRICT. 

The Federal District (Distrito Federal) was formed by the law of No- 
vember 18, 1824. Rules for its administration were enacted May 6, 1861, 
amended December 14, 1900, and its present political and administrative 
status is determined by the Organic Law of March 26, 1903. 

Boundary, Area and Population. — On the north, east and west by the 
State of Mexico, on the south by the State of Morelos. Its area is 1,499 
square kilometers (579 square miles). The population (1910) is 719,052, 
of which 339,341 are males and 379,711 are females. 

The climate is moderately cool, agreeable and healthy, in spite of the 
fact that the thermometrical variations are numerous and extensive, in the 
different seasons. 

No rivers of importance cross the District. Streams like the Consulado, 
Morelos, San Buenaventura, Tacubaya, San Angel, Tlalpan and La Piedad 
are called rivers, but some of them have water only during the rainy 
season. The Lake Xochimilco, and parts of Chalco and Texcoco, belong 
to the District. Mineral springs exist in Pocito, Guadalupe Hidalgo, 
Penon and Horno. 

The agricultural products are barley, chile, beans (frijoles), and peas, 
potatoes, wheat, together with fruits and woods of various kinds. Many 
flowers and edible vegetables (garden truck) are grown. 



226 MEXICO. 

The niiiK-ral pitulucls are insigniticant. as the geological furnialioii of 
the earth shows only traces of coal, and tcquczqnitc near the lakes. 

Railways within the District are innuerous. In addition to the exten- 
sive system of urban and suburban traction lines, there are the Mexican 
Railway, to Veracruz; the Interoceanic (of the National Railways), also 
to Veracruz but through Jalapa; the Hidalgo, for Pachuca, Tulancingo 
and Tortugas; and the Mexica'n National (of the National Railways) for 
Laredo; the Central (National Railways) for Ciudad Juarez; and the 
National Railways for Cuernavaca and Balsas. 

Mexican and Otonii are the native languages .spoken 1)y the Indians. 
The Federal District is divided, for administrative purposes, into 13 
Municipalities (about like a township in the United States), which con- 
tain 6 cities, 3 towns, 127 villages, 32 organized estates, and 73 hamlets. 
These municipal divisions are: Mexico, Ixtacalco, Santa l-'e, Xochi- 
milco, Atzcapotzalco, Milpa Alta, Tacuya, Coyoacan, Mixcoac, Tacubaya, 
Cnuulalupe Hidalgo, San Angel, and Tlalpan. 

The local affairs are administered by a Superior Governing Council 
of three officers, whose titles are Governor of the Federal District, Presi- 
dent of the Superior Board of Health, and Director of Public Works, 
all appointed by the Federal Executive, but acting under the control of 
the Department of the Interior. 

Each of the three officials is for the most part independent and alone 
responsible in his own department. This responsibility is limited by the 
right of the Superior Council — that is, of the three officials acting to- 
gether — ^"to revise, confirming, reforming, or revoking the judgments 
of each one of the members of the Council, whenever these judgments 
are called in -question." The other duties of the Superior Council are 
advisory merely. It may propose changes in the District law or ad- 
ministration, rules for the government and organization of officers and 
public services. It may suggest improvements in works of public utility, 
such as water supply, drainage, sanitation, opening or widening streets, 
or the creation of special commissions to study and report upon such 
matters. The Council has a general supervision of the making of con- 
tracts for public works, but all such contracts must: be submitted for final 
approval to the higher authority. 

The Governor of the District, the Director-General of Public Works, 
and the President of the Superior Health Board is each the head of his 
own department and responsible for its work, but the subordinate officers 
and employees are appointed by the Chief Executive of the Republic. The 
three heads must each be a Mexican citizen, more than 25 years old, and 
not an ecclesiastic. 

The Governor of the District is the chief political authority in the 
District. He makes public, and enforces, all laws, decrees, and rules 
emanating from higher authority. He has special charge of the police 
and fire department, imposition of penalties for violation of ordinances, 
penal establishment, civic festivities, public diversions, plays, sale of in- 
toxicating liquors, hotels and restaurants, street cars and cabs, the civil 
register, and of the inspection of weights and measures. 

The Director-General of Public Works has special charge of the water 
supply, streets and roads, parks, monuments, municipal lighting, drainage 
and street cleaning, public buildings not under direct Federal control, 
cemeteries, construction, repair and maintenance of slaughterhouses and 
markets, inspection of building operations, and of woods, lands, commons, 
and other communal property. 

The President of the Superior Board of Health has charge of all 
sanitary works as provided by the sanitary code, and, in addition, of 
general sanitary inspection, especially of the hygienic and sanitary con- 



n 



n 




228 MEXICO. 

dition of slaughterhouses, markets, and cemeteries, and the introduction 
of meats from oilier sections. 

The popular element in government is preserved in the Federal District 
through the preservation of the ayuntamientos or town councils. Each 
of the 13 municipalities into which the District is divided has its own 
ayuntamiento, composed of councilors elected by popular vote for four 
years. To be a councilor one must be a Mexican citizen, resident within 
the municipality, in full enjoyment of civil and political rights, more than 
25 years of age, and not an ecclesiastic. 

The ayuntamiento of the municipality of the city of Mexico is com- 
posed of 21 members, of Tacubaya 11, and of each of the other municipal- 
ities 7. Each ayuntamiento elects from among its members a president 
and a vice-president who hold office for two years. 

The law requires that the ayuntamiento shall be consulted by the 
Ministry of the Interior, the Governor of the District, the director- 
general of public works, and the president of the health board, as the 
case may be, upon matters of general importance in the municipality, 
such as water supply and distribution, local sanitary work, establish- 
ment of new settlements, exploitation or sale of woods, lands, and 
commons. They must also be consulted as to contracts for the execu- 
tion of any of these works and as to all other contracts of a municipal 
character having a duration of five years or more, or which call for a 
total expenditure of 100,000 pesos or more, or an annual expenditure 
of 25,000 pesos. 

In all these matters the ayuntamientos have, by a two-thirds vote, the 
right of veto. The effect of this veto is to suspend for four months 
the project or contract in question. At the end of the four months if 
the ayuntamiento still opposes the proposition by a vote of three-fourths 
of its members, the matter is submitted to the President of the Republic 
for final solution. 

The City of Mexico is the capital of the Federal District, and also the 
seat of the Federal Government. Its population is 470,659, of which 
215,475 are males and 255,184 are females. This is probably the oldest city 
on the American continent, its authentic history dating back to the 12th 
centur}'. The ancient Aztec metropolis of Teiwclititlaii had for its center 
the great teocaUi which was on or near the site now occupied by the 
cathedral — the mother church of New Spain. This giant pyramid, along 
with the Aztec city, was destroyed by the Spanish invaders, and the 
Indian temples were so massive that they gradually sank out of sight 
and now lie buried beneath the modern capital. 

The first efforts to make a modern city were those of Maximilian and 
Carlota. The imperial pair beautified Chapultepec, they improved the 
Plaza Mayor (Zocalo), and showed that in Mexico there was the setting- 
for one of the most beautiful cities in the world. Since the present era 
of peace the growth has been remarkable. 

The superficial area of the present city is about 15 square miles (38.85 
square kilometers), although that of the District is 579 square miles, 
eight times the size of the District of Columbia. 

The Mexican capital is becoming one of the most beautiful cities of 
the world, but it is a city in process of being made over. Unlike Buenos 
Aires or Chicago, which are new, Mexico City is very old. The work 
of improvement is the work of tearing dowm and rebuilding. This work 
goes on constantly and always to fit in with a general large plan, which 
looks to the whole and not to the particular. 

Situated in a valley, with mountains on all sides, the location is ideal. 
To the stranger the most beautiful construction in the City of Mexico 
is the Paseo de la Reforma, or the Paseo, as it is usually called. It 
extends, over two and a half miles in length, from the center of the 
residential part of the city to the foot of Chapultepec. 



n 




230 MEXICO. 

The carria.ufway is broad, shaded by two rows of trees on each side, 
between wliicli is a wide promenade. At intervals the Paseo expands 
into a }ilorieta, a small circular park 400 feet (122 meters) in diameter, 
around which are handsomely carved stone benches. In the center of the 
glorictas are well-kept and beautiful llower beds. In the first i^lorieta 
within the city stands the colossal equestrian statue of Ciiaklks IV of 
Spain, said to be the largest bronze in the world. 

There are also colossal statues of Columbus and of Cuauhtemoc and 
Juarez. In fact, each gloricta will have several such statues of Mexican 
celebrities, which will be presented by the several Mexican States. 

The statue of Charles IV was first placed in 1804 on its pedestal in 
the Plaza Mayor, where it remained until 1824, when it was removed to 
the patio of the university, whence it was moved to its present site. It is 
a solid l^ronze, 15 feet 9 inches (S meters) high, weighing over 30 tons. 
The King is dressed in royal robes, wearing on his head a wreath of 
laurel and holding in his right hand the scepter. The horse is in the 
act of walking-, the left fore foot and right hind foot being raised. The 
sculptor was M.vnuel Tolsa. 

The statue of Columbus was one of the first monuments erected on the 
continent he discovered, and one of the handsomest. He stands drawing 
aside the veil which concealed the New World. The base is ornamented 
by basso-relievos picturing incidents in the life of the Great Admiral, 
and at the four corners stand life-size figures in bronze of Padre 
Marchena of La Rabida, Padre Fray, Diego Dehesa, Fray Pedro de 
Gante, and Fray Bartoleme de las Casas. 

The statue_ of Cuauhtemoc represents the plumed and featliered 
warrior standing upright in the act of drawing an arrow from his quiver. 
The hill of Chapultepec overlooking the city is said to have been the 
site of the summer palace of the Montezumas. After the conquest the 
Spanish viceroys built on the crest of Chapultepec the great castle which 
stands to this day and is the summer residence of President Diaz. Sur- 
rounding the castle are magnificent cypress woods, the finest grove on 
the continent. The view from the terrace of the castle is one of the 
world's famous sights. 

Another of the famous sights of Mexico is the Alameda, a park of 
about 40 acres. This was in old times an Indian market and also 
a place of execution. It was at one time inclosed by a high wooden 
fence, and later by a stone wall with a moat around the wall. Years 
ago the fences and walls were removed and the moat filled up. Since 
then the whole park has been made over, until it is now a most beautiful 
place of promenades. Here are held the fiestas on national holidays. 

One of the most important, if not the most important, municipal 
work undertaken in the city of Mexico has been the drainage of the 
valley. This is a very old project and antedates the conquest in the 
colonial period. Work was at times pushed and then abandoned, and 
so it was during the earlier years of the Republic. Decisive action 
dates from the formation of the Drainage Board in 1886, since which 
time the work has been continuously and intelligently carried on to a final 
completion a few years ago. It comprehends an outlet from the low- 
lying valley to carry off the surplus water fall and drainage for which 
nature has not provided. The Valley of Mexico is a great undrained 
bowl set round with a rim of high hills and mountains. This rim has 
been tunneled and into the tunnel are carried the waters of the Viga 
Canal which is the final receptacle of the surplus water and city drainage. 
The drainage itself is by means of an underground system similar to 
that of most other modern cities. It differs in this that the natural fall 
being insufficient to carry off the matter or to flush the pipes by gravity, 
an artificial method of accomplishing these ends was necessary. This 




u 



u 






234 i%[EXico. 

is (lone through a supplemental water supply derived from the springs 
surrounding the valley, which is gathered and pumped under pressure 
through the drain pipes, through the larger collecting channels into the 
canal, and through the tunnel out of the valley. The work begun by the 
Board in 1886 was continued by a Commisison appointed in 1895 and by 
the Board of Directors appointed in 1896, and completed in 1900. The 
opening of the new water supply for the city was one of the notable 
events of the Centennial .Anniversary of Independence, and took place 
September 21, 1910. By this achievement about 4()0 liters (363 quarts) 
of water a day are available per capita for a population of 545,000. 

The great cathedral of Mexico stands first in architectural interest 
among the many fine buildings which have given to the capital the name 
of "City of Palaces." 

The corner stone was laid in 1573 upon the site occupied by the great 
Aztec temple which was destroyed by Cortes in 1521. A small church 
was two years later erected upon the site, which in turn gave place fifty 
years later to the foundations of the present cathedral. The walls were 
completed in 1615, the roof in 1623, when the first mass was said. In 
1667 the church was dedicated, and in 1791 the towers were finished, and 
the building was finally completed about twenty years later. 

The cathedral occupies an extent of 374 feet bv 187 feet (114 meters 
by 57 meters). The architecture is composite. The fagade on the side 
from which the towers rise is divided by massive buttresses into three 
divisions representing the three Greek orders. The lower is Doric, next 
above a somewhat exaggerated Ionic, and the upper part Corinthian. The 
material is a gray stone relieved by statues, friezes, bases, and capitals of 
white marble, which gives an agreeable color effect. The towers are 
204 feet (62 meters) in height. 

The National Palace occupies an entire square, fronting nearly 700 feet 
on the Plaza Mayor. It contains the President's offices and those of 
several executive departments, and is the meeting place of the Senate. 
The House of Deputies occupies a new building built especially for the 
purpose. The Palace occupies the site of the House of Cortes, which 
was destroyed in 1692. The present building was begun soon after, and 
has been added to from time to time. Over the main gateway of the 
Palace hangs the Liberty Bell of Mexico, rung by Hidalgo to call the 
people to arms in 1810. A modern home for the National Congress is 
at present under construction. This, when finished, will be one of the 
finest capitols of America. 

The National Library was formerly the old Church of St. Augustin, 
and is one of the fine buildings of the city. It has gardens on each side 
and contains 200,000 volumes, of which many are very old and valuable. 

The National Museum is one of the world's great museums. Its col- 
lection of ancient Mexican art and other relics is known to all scholars. 

The School of Fine Arts is a fine gallery of painting and sculpture. 

Among the most noted churches are San Pablo, Santa Vera Cruz, 
Santa Maria Martir, Santa Ana, Santa Cruz Acaltan, San Miguel, 
San Jose, Santo Domingo, San Augustin, San Diego, and Nuestra 
Senora de la Concepcion. 

Other fine buildings are the Mining Palace, the Post-Office building. 
Palace of Justice, and the Mint. 

Mexico City is thoroughly cosmopolitan. Besides being the political, 
financial and commercial center of the Republic, it is also an important 
manufacturing place, and for all these reasons attracts to itself a large 
foreign colony. It is therefore celebrated for its gaiety, activity and for 
the comnleteness of the municipal advantages. 

Electric trams circulate to all parts of the city; the svstcm converges 
at the Plaza Mayor from which tracks radiate in every direction. There 



n 




236 MEXICO. 

arc also good cabs of various grailes, ami nunurdus ia.\ical)s at hotels, 
railway stations and at public stands. 

Six railway stations provide for the great passenger travel which is a 
sign of modern Mexico. This is particularly active in the capital, because, 
with but few and relatively unimportant exceptions, it is at present 
necessary and always pleasanter to pass through the City in going from 
one part of the interior to another. 

At least a dozen lirst class hotels are available for travelers, and in 
these, besides Spanish, English. German, and French arc spoken. Many 
comfortable hotels of a second order are to be found, but they are patron- 
ized by those possessing an intimate knowledge of Spanish, even if that 
is not their native tongue. So great has been the tide of visitors of late 
years, however, that hotel accommodations are not equal to the demand, 
so that it is probable that within a short time Mexico City will have 
■one or even more of the huge sky-scrapers for which New York and 
the large cities of the United States and Europe are famous. 

Other conveniences of a metropolis, such as shops, banks, post and 
telegraph offices, theaters, clubs, parks and suburbs, are abundant, and 
of such excellence that Mexico City bears the distinction of being rather 
European than American in such characteristics. 

The city is divided into several sections, partly distinguished by their 
geographic location, partly also by their historical relationship and asso- 
cation. At the center and toward the north and east are the older and 
•more peculiarly Spanish and Mexican quarters, with most of the famous 
churches, public buildings and architectural landmarks. Toward the 
south and west are the newer quarters, the modern resident colonias, 
and the pleasure grounds of the people. Surrounding the city are nu- 
merous suburbs in which are modest settlements of the poorer classes, 
or the costly villas of the rich. 

At the head of the educational system of the Republic, and therefore 
of the schools of the capital, is the University, which now (1910) is prop- 
erly organized and combines in one administrative body the necessary 
faculties for such an institution. The university will be housed in a 
buildmg of its own, but teaching is conducted in different places long 
■used for their special purposes. Other institutions for public instruction 
of technical and professional courses, of which there are twenty in all, 
although some of them may iinally be incorporated into the university, 
are two normal schools, one for men and one for women ; an engineering 
school; a school of fine arts; a conservatory of music and declamation, 
and a school of commerce. There are day and night schools, while pub- 
lic instruction is given also in the museums and libraries of the city. 
Primary instruction within the Federal District is supplied by upwards 
of 600 schools, some superor, some elementary, and six kindergartens. 

Besides the great National Library, there are two other public libraries, 
and many that can be consulted by the public. The National Museum is 
famous ihroughout the world, and its highly interesting collection of 
Indian Idols is unique, in that the articles are authentic and the majority 
found within the Mexican Republic. Other museums are open to the 
public, and are of special interest. 

Nineteen Hospitals are maintained in the City of Mexico, by both 
■government and private funds. Several of these are very old, having 
been founded in colonial times, although the buildings occupied by them 
are for the most part of later date, but the Hospital General and the 
Manicomio General (insane asylum) are of most modern construction 
and efficiency, so that they are recognized by Mexican and foreign phy- 
sicians alike as without superiors in America or Europe. The_ English, 
American, Spanish and French colonies maintain separate hospitals, and 
the national railways has a hospital for its employes. It should be noted 



238 MEXICO. 

hero that these colonies liavc likewise ceniettrics of their own, and in 
addition thereto are modern jnihlic burying grounds. Some of the his- 
torical l^antfoiics (cemeteries) are verv interesting, altlKnigli not ordi- 
narily used to-day for permanent interment. 

Ten daih' newspapers in Spanish, two in luiglish, and one in French, 
are circulated in the capital. Altogether 225 or more publications are 
registered in the capital, among which are several weeklies of a serious 
or humorous character, usually illustrated, and a number of commercial 
and hnancial papers. In the more prominent dailies telegraphic news is 
liberally printed, and press dispatches are obtained from all over the 
world. 

At the capital of the Republic are maintained an .Ambassador from the 
United States. Ministers from Portugal, Great Britain, Japan, Spain, 
Honduras, Guatemala, Germany, the Netherlands, France, Belgium, 
Nicaragua, Au.'-tria- Hungary, Brazil, Italy, Chile, Cuba, and China; and 
a Charge d'Affaires from Argentina. Resident in other countries but 
accredited also to Mexico are Ministers from Ecuador, Peru, Persia, and 
Uruguay. Consuls General from Chile, Colombia, Dominican Republic, 
Ecuador, Great Britain, Flolland, Nicaragua, Norway, Persia, Peru, Por- 
tugal, Salvador, Sweden, Switzerland, United States and Venezeula ; and 
Consuls from Argentine Republic (Vice), Austria-Hungary, Belgium, 
Bolivia, Brazil (Vice), Costa Rica, Cuba (Vice), Denmark, Germany, 
Italy, Monaco. Panama, and Spain.* 

AGUASCALIENTES. 

Aguascalientes became a State of the Federation on February 5, 1859, 
and its constitution was promulgated October 29th of the same year, but 
revised October 18, 1868. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on all sides, ex- 
cept the south and southeast, by the State of Zacatecas ; on the south 
and southeast bv the State of Jalisco. Its area is 7.692 square kilometers 
(2,969 square miles). Its population (1910) is 118,978, of which 58,058 
are males and 60,920 are females. 

The climate is temperate, particularly in the partidos of Aguascalientes 
and Rincon de Ramos, where all conditions are extraordinarily favorable. 
In the higher altitudes of the northeast there is a cold and disagreeable 
region. 

Several rivers water the State, the principal ones being the San Pedro, 
which changes its name to Aguascalientes near the capital ; the Pabellon ; 
the Tejas, and the Juchipilla. A iew lagoons or swamps of little import- 
ance are found. The abundance of mineral springs has given the State 
its name (hot waters), as the temperature of these springs, the principal 
ones being those in the capital, varies from 30° to 40° C. (86° to 105° F.). 

This State, the third smallest in the Republic, is second only to Vera- 
cruz in the proportion of its cultivated area and the value of its agricul- 
ture. About one-half the area is devoted to stock raising or under culti- 
vation, the products being generally those of a temperate zone — cereals 
like wheat, oats, maize, sweet potatoes, chick peas, green peppers. Honey 
is produced, and grapes and fruits grow well. The white mulberry for 
silk worm industry is cultivated. Tropical fruits thrive also, if locality 
is carefully selected. 

Gold, silver, iron, lead, copper, tin, mercury and sulphur, lime, and 
gypsum are found. The metals appear generally in combination. Two 



*A list of Mexican diplomatic and consular officers maintained by the 
Republic abroad is given in the Appendix 13, page 378. 



AGUASCALIENTES — CAMPECHE. 239 

hundred and fifty-nine mining properties in operation were reported in 
1909. The chief among these are the Asientos de Ibarra, 30 miles (48 
kilometers) northeast of the city of Aguascalientes, historically famous 
for its silver and copper; and Tepezela, west of the former. Both mines 
are in active operation. A smelter is located in the City of Aguasca- 
lientes. 

The Mexican Central (National Railways) crosses the State with its 
main line between Mexico City and Juarez; it has a small branch to 
Cofre, in the northeast, and a longer branch toward the northeast from 
the capital to San Luis Potosi and Tampico. 

The State is divided into 4 Partidos with 8 Municipalidades, which 
contain 4 cities, 1 town, 3 villages, 25 organized estates, 369 hamlets. The 
partidos are Aguascalientes ; Rincon de Romos ; Ocampo, and Calvillo. 

The capital and chief city is Aguascalientes, 364 miles (586 kilometers) 
north of Mexico Citv. It has electric tram cars, telegraphs, telephones. 




Illumination of the Government Palace in the City of 
Aguascalientes 16th of September, 1910. 

good schools, hospitals and libraries, and is celebrated for its almost 
perfect climate. Among the industries are cotton mills, tobacco fac- 
tories, pottery works, tanneries, and wine and liquor establishments. _ It 
is the most important distributing center of the State, and the location 
of the shops of the National Railways. 

CAMPECHE. 

Campeche became a State of the Federation on February 19, 1862, and 
its constitution was promulgated June 30th, of the same year. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north 
by the State of Yucatan ; on the east by Yucatan and the Territory of 
Quintana Roo ; on the south by the Republic of Guatemala ; on the south- 
west by the State of Tabasco; and on the west by the Gulf of Mexico. 
Its area is 46,855 square kilometers (18,086 square miles). Its popula- 
tion (1910) is 85,795, of whom 43,690 are males and 42,105 are females. 



240 



MEXICO. 



The climate is hot but the rainfall moderate, except on the coast toward 
the west. Frosts are unknown. Owing to the swampy condition of the 
land malarial fevers are common. 

The nortlieni portion of the State lacks water courses, although the 
region is fertilized by rains, temporary brooks and wells. The southern 
portion is better supplied. The principal rivers are the Champoton, 
Chiboja Grande, Mamentel, Palizada, a branch of the Usumacinta, Con- 
cepcion, Balchacay, San Miguel, San Juan, Pakaytum, Nohbican and San 
Antonio. The Rio Candelaria is the largest in the State and is supposed 
to have its headquarters in Guatemala, entering Mexico through the Terri- 
tory of Quintana Roo. These rivers are navigable for short distances, 
and pass through forests of valuable timber or have cultivated lands on 
their banks. The Laguna de Terminos, separated from the Gulf by the 
islands of Puerto Real and Carmen, but communicating with it by nar- 
row channels, is shallow, but the water is sweet ; the shores are splendidly 
wooded. There are other but much smaller lakes and a few lagoons. A 
few mineral springs are found in the lowlands. The Peninsula of 
Sabancuy lies between the Lake Terminos and the Gulf. 

The agricultural products are rice, cacahuatc (peanut), tobacco, cotton, 
indigo, chile, beans, henequen, and hardwoods. Tropical fruits thrive 
when cultivated. There are no mines, except the deposits of salt, which 
form of one the chief industries of the State. The industries are those 
connected with gathering dye and hardwods, fishing, agriculture and stock 
raising, and the manufacture of hammocks, ropes and mats. 

The ports of entry are Campeche, the capital, and Carmen. 

A railway, part of the United Railways of Yucatan system, connects 
Campeche with Merida, 173 kilometers (107 miles). Active construction is 
begun to connect Campeche with the City of Mexico, through connection 
with the Tehuantepec National Railway. The distance between the cities 
is 1,320 kilometers (820 miles). A short line of 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) 
runs from Campeche to Lerma. 

The Maya Indians still preserve in the State their original language. 

Campeche is divided politically into 5 Departments, 20 Municipalities, 
which contain 2 cities, 7 towns, 49 villages, ISO organized estates and 237 
hamlets. The Departments are Campeche, Champoton, Bolanchenticul, El 
Carmen, and Plecelchakan. 

The capital and chief city is Campeche. The port has safe anchorage 
for vessels of moderate draft, but larger craft must remain some miles 
away. Regular communication is maintained by steamers of the Com- 
pania Mexicana de Navigacion along the coast ; and freight vessels, many 
of them carrying passengers, ply frequently to foreign ports. The city was 
founded in 1517 and is therefore very old, but in many respects it is 
modern, having telegraph and telephones, public buildings of interest, 
good libraries and museums, a bank, theater^ and a hospital. 

El Carmen, the second city and seanort, is on an island of the same 
name at the mouth of the Laguna de Terminos, and is known chiefly for 
its traffic in dyewoods and logwoods. 

CHIAPAS. 

Chiapas became a State of the Federation November 12, 1824, and its 
constitution was promulgated January 4. 1858. 

Boundary. Area. Population. — The State is bounded on the north 
and northeast by the State of Tabasco; on the east by the Republic of 
Guatemala ; on the south by the Pacific Ocean ; on the west by the State 
of Oaxaca; and on the northwest by the State of Veracruz. Its area is 
70.524 square kilometers (27,222 square miles). Its population (1910) is 
436,817, of whom 213,841 are males and 222,976 are females. 



242 Mi;\ico. 

The climate varies accordiiio- to the altitude, being hot on the coast 
and the lands irrigated by the Chiapas River, humid on the lowlands, cold 
in the valley of San Cristobal, but generally temperate in the rest of the 
State. Rain is abundant, although relatively moderate over the central 
area. 

Several rivers wafer the State tlic principal ones being the Chiapa or 
Mezcalapa, which has its origin in Guatemala and flows into the Gulf of 
Mexico after forming the boundary between Chiapas, Veracruz and Ta- 
basco, as the Grijalva; the Usumacinta River, also rising in Guatemala, 
f\)rms the boundary between that Republic and the State of Chiapas; its 
final outlet is in the Gulf of IMcxico, but receives many affluents from 
within the State, .^ome of which are navigable, the Usumacinta itself being 
the carrier of an extensive traffic for a long distance. These two rivers 
comprise the chief systems of the State, as practically all other streams 
empty into them. The Suchiate River forms in part the boundary between 
Chiapas and Guatemala, on the south Lake Tepancuapan is the largest 
body of water in the State, and lies at an altitude of 1,447 meters (4,747 
feet) above the Pacific Ocean, in the eastern part of the State. Other 
lakes of less importance are Catazaja and Islotes. The coast is low and 
sandy, and offers bur little natural shelter; one port of entry, Soconusco 
or San Benito, is recognized, but other roadsteads are used at times. Regu- 
lar stops are made at San Benito by the Pacific Mail Steamship Com- 
pany, and by vessels of the Kosmos Line. The custom-house is situated 
at Tapachula. and the staff go down from there as the cargo is dis- 
charged. Several mineral springs are known, but not much utilized. 

Agricultural products are coffee, sugar, tobacco, cotton, rice, henequen, 
vanilla, sarsaparilla, maize, wheat, cacao, chile, beans, potatoes and rubber. 
In the extensive forests are every variety of tropical timber, cabinet and 
dyewoods, aromatic and medicinal plants, and abundance of rubber trees. 
Plantations of rubber trees are also being developed. Cattle are grown 
in many parts of the State and especially along the Pacific coast strip. 

Mineral products are restricted to the rich salt deposits of Tonala, 
Custepeques and Soconusco, although 38 mining properties have been 
declared, in 1909, of gold, gold and silver, silver, with copper, and lead, 
or alone, of copper, and of iron. Coal is reported, and wells \-ieldJng a 
measurable flow of oil have been put down. 

The industries of Chiapas are almost altogether those relating to the 
agricultural and stock-raising products, but local factories supply some 
of the demand for hats, soap, tanned hides and cotton goods. 

The Pan American Railway is the only line in the State. It runs be- 
tween the Guatemala frontier at Mariscal (Ayutla) on the Suchiate 
River, and Gamboa in Oaxaca, through Tapachula and Tonala ; at Gam- 
boa (San Geronimo) connection is made with the Tehuantepec National 
Railway for the rest of the Republic. A short branch from Tonola leads 
to Puerto Arista. 

There are said to be 14 dis'^inct Indian tribes in Chiapas, each with its 
own language. Probably they are intimately connected with the Mayas. 

Chiapas is divided politically into 13 Departments, with 122 Municipali- 
ties, which contain 7 cities, 14 towns. 159 villages, 998 organized estates, 
3,614 hamlets and 3 colonies. The Departments are : Tuxtla Gutierrez. 
Comitan, Chiapa, Chilon, La Libertad, Las Casas, Mariscal, Mezcalapa, 
Palenque, Pichucalco. Simojovel, Soconusco. Tonola. 

Tuxtla Gutierrez is the capital, 1,115 kilometers (692 miles) from Mex- 
ico City, and 140 kilonvters (87 miles') from the Pan American Railway 
station of Jalisco, with which it is connected by a good wagon road, 
usable at times by automobile. It stands in the midst of an amazingly 
rich district, but the lack of rail communication has retarded the growth 
of both town and country. The capital is in telegraphic touch with the 



CHIHUAHUA. 



243 



Test of the Republic, and has banks, hotels and good public buildings. 
Until 1892 San Cristobal was the capital of the State, and the city retains 
much of its attractiveness, with a theater, cathedral, hospital, library and 
institute of arts and sciences. Other places of importance are Tonola, a 
busy agricultural center; Tapachula, only a short distance from the fron- 
tier of Guaiemala and therefore growing in commercial enterprise; and 
2apaluta, the interior and only other custom-house on the southern border. 

CHIHUAHUA. 

Chihuahua became a State of the Federation July 6, 1824, and its con- 
stitution was promulgated May 31, 1859. 

Boundary^ Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the United States (New Mexico and Texas), on the northeast by the 
United States, on the east by the State of Coahuila, on the south by the 
State of Durango, on the southwest by the State of Sinaloa, and on the 
west by the States of Sinaloa and Sonora. Its area is 233,094 square 
kilometers (89,974 square miles), and is therefore the largest State of 
the Mexican Union. Its population (1910) is 405,265, of whom 207,942 
are males and 197,323 are females. 

The climate of the entire State is salubrious and healthful. The sum- 
mers are long, and for a few months considerable heat is felt in the 
lower elevations during the middle of the day, but the nights are always 
cool and pleasant. During the short winters, especially in the elevated 
portions of the table-lands, frosts frequently occur, and sometimes snow. 
Considerable rain falls during the summer, but in winter the precipita- 
tion is very light. 

The rivers are unimportant. The chief are the Bravo del Norte (Rio 
Grande), forming in part the boundary between the United States; the 
Conchos, a tributary of the Rio Grande, and the Casas Grandes, on the 
banks of which are situated some of the interesting prehistoric ruins of 
Mexico. There are small lakes, Guzman, Santa Maria, Patos, and others 
of no commercial importance. In many places mineral springs are found, 
chiefly sulphur and iron. 

The agricultural products, although less remarkable than those of the_ 
mines, are nevertheless of great value in estimating the wealth of the 
State. As the climate is temperate, maize, wheat and alfalfa grow well ; 
fruits and vegetables can be highly cultivated, but as yet the crop is not 
enough to satisfy the local market. Cotton, sugar cane, oats, beans, 
barley, frijoles, peppers, potato, tobacco and the grape, are grown in 
their proper places. One of the most important pursuits is the raising 
of cattle, sheep, horses, mules and hogs, which are exported annually to 
the United States. With irrigation, the large tracts of land already 
devoted to these purposes can be enormously increased, as the State is 
l)y no means as well occupied as it should be. There is here an excel- 
lent field for the investment of capital. The great dams on the Boca 
Grande and Conchos Rivers will put under irrigation an immense area 
of virgin land. 

The mineral products reported are gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, zinc, 
coal, manganese (oxide), and cinnabar. The mines in operation are of 
gold, silver, copper, lead and iron. The State of Chihuahua is naturally 
divided into two parts, the eastern or table-land section, altitude from 
3,000 to 6,000 feet (914 to 1,828 meters), and the western or Sierra Madre 
section, 6,000 to 10,000 feet (1,828 to 3,048 meters). 

In the eastern section, Santa Eulalia is the most important camp, 
located 17 miles (27 kilometers) southeast of Chihuahua City, and was 
discovered in 1703. Batopilas, southwest of Chihuahua City, on the slope 
■of the Sierra Madre, was discovered in 1632. Arteaga lies west-north- 



244 MEXICO. 

west of Batopilas, and several mining camps art in this neighborhood. 
North of here is the Rayon district, where are several well-developed 
properties. South of Chihuahua is the Parral district, with many old 
and new mines. Mina, the district on the slope of the Sierra Madre 
mountains, to the west, is another of the active mining sections of the 
State. At the last official report there were 5,249 mining properties listed. 

The principal industries are those connected with agriculture and 
mining. Manufacturing has not assumed proportions commensurate 
with them. 

Chihualuia is well supplied with railways. The Mexican Central 
(National Railways) passes through the State, and other systems are 
the Sierra Madre and Pacific; the Parral and Durango ; the Mexican. 
Northern; the Chihuahua and Pacific; the Kansas City, Mexico and" 
Orient. Besides these there are several local lines operating under State 
concessions and serving mining regions. 

Of the Indian dialects spoken, the Mexican, Otomi, Pima, Tarahumar, 
Tehuima and Tepehua are recognized. 

Cliihuahua is divided politically into 12 Districts with 58 Municipalities, 
containing 6 cities, 9 towns, 167 villages, 281 organized estates, 1,604 
hamlets, and 4 colonies. 

The Districts are : Iturbide, Bravos, Hidalgo, Andres del Rio, Ca- 
margo, Jimenez, Arteaga, Galeana, Mina, Benito Juarez, Guerrero and 
Rayon. 

The capital and chief city is the City of Chihuahua, situated about in 
the center of the State. It is a progressive city with a large foreign 
resident community, lying 225 miles (362 kilometers) south of El Paso. 
Although historically very old (1539), it is thoroughly modern, with 
tramcars, banks, hotels, theaters and such elements of comfort and amuse- 
ment. 

Parral (Hidalgo del — named after the patriot) is an influential town, 
formerly the residence of the Spanish Governor. Since its increased 
importance as a mining center it has entered upon a period of active 
development; there are banks, a theater, hotels and an international club. 

Ciudad Juarez is the frontier custom-house, opposite El Paso, Texas. 

COAHUILA. 

Coahuila became a State of the Federation May 7, 1824, and its consti- 
tution was promulgated May 31, 1869. 

Boimdary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the United States (Texas) ; on the east by the State of Nuevo Leon; 
on the south by the State of San Luis Potosi ; and on the west by the 
States of Durango and Chihuahua. Its area is 165,099 square kilometers 
(63,728 square miles), making it the third largest State in the Union. 
Its population is 367,652, of whom 176,779 are males and 190,873 are 
females. 

The climate is relatively healthy. Winds are very variable and rains 
abundant in the districts of Saltillo, Viesca, and Rio Grande; moderate 
in Parras, and scarce in Monclova and the lowlands. Frost is occa- 
sional even in the southern portion of the State and very frequent in 
the Rio Grande section. 

The rivers are the Sabinas, the Nadadores, the Monclova and the 
Nazas, the last named entering the State from Durango and emptying 
its waters into the Lagoon of Mayran or Parras. The natural watershed 
is toward the Rio Grande, which forms the boundary between the State 
and Texas. The principal lagoons are the Alamo, or Parras, in the 
district of Viesca ; the Mayran, or Muerta, larger than the former, in 
the Parras district; the Agua Verde and the Santa Maria, in the district 



COAHUILA. 



245 



of Monclova. Several mineral springs are known, and a few of them 
(hot springs) are utilized. 

Agriculture is the principal industry of the State ; cotton, corn, wheat, 
beans, pease, sugar cane, linseed, and about 30 species of leguminous 
plants being the most common products. Grape culture is attaining 
greater importance daily, and it is claimed that the product of the 
district of Parras is sweeter and more delicious than that of California, 
and equal, if not superior, to the Malaga and Granada varieties. Almost 
all the plantations in Coahuila are equipped with modern machinery and 
implements, and follow the most advanced systems of cultivation. One 
of the greatest sources of wealth is cattle raising, the plains affording 
excellent pasturage for the stock. Efforts have been made to improve the 
breeds by crossing the native cattle with fine imported specimens. Several 
foreign companies have bought lands for cattle breeding. In the south- 
western portion of the State is the famous Laguna district, which fur- 
nishes 90% of the cotton supply of the Republic. Here also the guayule 
plant grows in remarkable abundance. 

The mineral wealth of the State remained unrecognized until a few 
years ago, but its development has since been so steady and rapid that 
now mining may be said to constitute one of the chief industries. The 




Casino de la Laguna, Torreon, State of Coahuila. 



246 



MEXICO. 



wealth of Sierra Mojada, Sierra del Carmen, and the valley of Santa 
Rosa is almost incredible. These mineral regions are in reality im- 
mense silver deposits, which, in conjunction with the coal fields of P'icdras 
Negras (Ciudad Porlirio Diaz) and Sabinas Valley, are making the 
State recognized as one of the richest in the Republic. Besides the silver 
and coal, gold, copper, lead, iron, sulphur and onyx are known to e.xist. 
The lead-ore camp of Sierra Mojada was discovered in 1878, and is 
located in the western part of the State. The coal fields parallel the 
Sabinas River to a considerable extent. Jimulco, in the southwestern 
part of the State close to the Durango line, is one of the largest copper 
mines in the Republic. Zinc is mined on a moderate scale. Industries 
are chiefly associated with agriculture and mines, but in Torreon are 
large cotton and guayule factories, and in Saltillo fine sarapes have been 
the product of local looms for generations. 

Coahuila has crossing it the Mexican International Railway (National 
Railways of Mexico) from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz to Torreon, with 
'branches to San Antonio, Minas de Hondo, Musquiz, Cuatro Cienegas, 
Rosita and to Anhelo. From Saltillo the Coahuila and Zacatecas Rail- 
;way runs from Saltillo to Concepcion del Oro in Zacatecas. The Mexican 
National and the Mexican Central (both National Railways) have 
iljranches across the State from Saltillo. 

Kikapoo, Mexican and Otomi are the native Indian languages spoken. 
Coahuila is divided politically into 5 Districts, with 33 "Municipalities, 
containing 6 cities, 27 towns, 179 organized estates, and 1,111 hamlets. 
The Districts are: Centro, Monclova, Parras, Rio Grande and Viezca. 
Saltillo is the capital of the State and the principal city. It is now a 
modern city, with good drainage and water supply, banks, hotels, clubs, 
theaters and public buildings. It is a manufacturing center, with cotton 
and ixtle mills. Torreon is the chief town of the Laguna district, from 
which almost the entire cotton supply of the country is obtained, and it 
is also an important commercial place, owing to the fact that it is the 
junction of the two great railway lines of the north (Central and Inter- 
national). There is electric car service to neighboring towns. Torreon 
contains smelters, soap factories, rubber works, packing houses, machine 
shops and flour mills. Ciudad Porfirio Diaz (fornierly Piedras Negras) 
is one of the largest custom-houses on the northern frontier. It lies 
opposite Eagle Pass, in Texas. Parras is located in a fertile valley 
noted for its fruit production, particularly grapes. 

COLIMA. 

Colima became a State of the Federation October 4, 1824, and its 
constitution was promulgated October 16, 1857. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north and 
northeast by the State of Jalisco; on the east by the State of Michoacan ; 
and on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. The area is 5,887 
square kilometers (2,273 square miles). Its population is 77,704, of whom 
38,003 are males and 39,701 are females. 

The climate is cold in the north, temperate in the center, and hot and 
relatively unhealthy along the coast. 

The interior of the State is mountainous, being traversed by off-shoots 
of the Sierra Madre del Sur. The northern section, occupied by the 
slopes of the Colima volcano, constitutes the mountainous part of its 
territory, the ascent from the coast rising gradually to a height of 1,200 
meters (2,428 feet). The littoral is washed by the Pacific for an extent 
of 160 kilometers (100 miles). It is low and sandy and contains rich 
salt deposits. The Revillagigedo group, composed of four desert islands 
of volcanic origin, named Socorro, San Benedicto, Rosa Partida, and 
Clarion, lies 240 kilometers (150 miles) northwest of Manzanillo. 



COLIMA. 



247 



The irrigating streams are the Armeria and Coahuavana rivers and 
their affluents. The former traverses the center of the State from north 
to south, emptying into the Pacific through the mouth of the Pascuales 
after a course of 294 kilometers (183 miles), its navigable extent only 
reaching 20 kilometers (12 miles) from the mouth. The Coahuayana 
forms the natural boundary line between the States of Michoacan and 
Colima. In addition to the water courses above mentioned there are the 
lakes of Cuyutlan and Alcuzagiie. There are mineral springs at the base 
of several of the mountains. 

The principal industries are agriculture, stock raising, and the exploita- 
tion of the salt deposits. The fertility of the soil, due to its fine natural 
irrigation, permits the culture of various products, among others coffee, 
cacao, tobacco, rice, cotton, indigo, sugar, escoba, cereals, and leguminous 
plants. The coffee of Colima is regarded in Germany as the best on 
the market. For the development of its agricultural wealth the State 




Government Palace, City of Colima. 



is greatly in need of colonists. The mineral wealth lies principally in 
the salt deposits, which extend all along the coast. There are also mines 
of silver, gold, copper, and sulphur. 

Colima carries on an active trade with the towns south of Jalisco, with 
Guadalajara, Mazatlan, and other Mexican ports, and with the foreign 
ports of San Francisco and San Diego (California), also with Ger- 
many and the Hawaiian Islands. The maritime trade is conducted 
through the port of Manzanillo, and consists chiefly of exports of rice, 
coffee, rubber, fruits, cabinet woods, dyewoods, corn, hides and skins, 
minerals, etc., the imports being woolen, linen, and silk goods, alimentary 
products, glassware, arms and ammunition, wines and liquors, etc. 
Overland traffic is carried on by rail from Manzanillo to Colima and to 
the interior of the Republic; in other instances, by wagon roads. 

A division of the National Railways of Mexico now connects the port 
of Manzanillo with Guadalajara, through the city of Colima. 



248 MEXICO. 

The State of Colima is divided politically into 3 Districts, containing 7 
Municipalities, in which are 2 cities, 1 town, 14 villages, 28 organized 
estates and 252 hamlets. 

The Districts are : Centro, Alvarez. Medillin. 

The capital and chief city of the State, Colima, on the banks of the 
Colima, 915 kilometers (569 miles) from Mexico city, is an old and pic- 
turesque city, noted for the beauty of its surroundings. It was founded 
in 1523 and was the third town of importance established in New 
Spain. The railway to the interior was opened in 1908. There are 
tramcars, electric lights, a theater, banks, a cathedral and interesting 
public buildings. Manzanillo is the port of entry for the State and the 
distributing center for this part of the coast. The Government is doing 
a great deal to make the harbor modern in every respect. Service between 
Manzanillo and other ports of the Republic is maintained by the Caiiipania 
X^az'icra del Pacifico. flying the Mexican flag; with Pacific coast ports 
outside of the Republic by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company with 
regular steamers between San Francisco and Panama, and by the Kosmos 
Line, from Hamburg; by the Canadian Mexican Pacific Steamship Com- 
pany from Vancouver and Victoria. B. C. ; the Toyo Kiscn Kaisha, 
Japanese Steamship Line of Tokio, Japan, has steamers between Japan,. 
Manzanillo and Salina Cruz, to South America. 



DURANGO. 

Durango became a State of the Federation May 22, 1824, and its con- 
stitution was promulgated May 25, 1863. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the State of Chihuahua ; on the east by the State of Coahuila ; on the 
southeast by the State of Z'acatccas ; on the south by the State of Zaca- 
tecas, the State of Jalisco (very slightly), and the Territory of Tepic ; and 
on the west bv the State of Sinaloa. Its area is 109,495 square kilometers 
(42,265 square miles) ; its population is (1910) 436,147, of whom 221,105 
are males and 215,042 are females. 

The climate is cold in the higher altitudes of the Sierra Madre moun- 
tains, warmer on the slopes, especially toward the Pacific, hot on the 
coast, and temperate in the valleys and plateaus, particularly of the Nazas 
basin. Rainfall is moderate, and frosts are frequent in the mountains. 

The most important river is the Nazas, in the northern part of the 
State. It rises on the eastern slope of the Sierra Madre and empties 
into Habas Lake, after a course of 600 kilometers (373 miles). Its 
principal affluents are the Santiago and San Juan rivers, the former 
traversing an extent of 215 kilometers (134 miles) before its junction 
with the main stream. The Tunal River rises west of the city of Durango, 
and after a course of 150 kilometers (93 miles) enters the Territory of 
Tepic. The Suchil, or Nombre de Dios, an affluent of the Tunal ; the 
Rio Chico, or Alaponeta, and the Aguanaval are the other most important 
streams. There are also some small lakes, the principal being Colorado, 
Guatimape, Ojo de Agua, Sanceda, Inde, Cuencame, and Atotonilco. 
Near the city of Durango there is a fine mineral spring, holding in solu- 
tion a large quantity of iron. 

The most important agricultural region is included in the partidos of 
Mapimi, Durango, San Juan del Rio, and Papasquiaro, the agricultural 
products being barley, corn, wheat, cotton, tobacco, fruits, leguminous 
plants, and sugar cane. The grapes of Villa Lerdo and Cuencame are 
famous. A considerable portion of the Laguna cotton district lies in 
Durango. In the Sierra Madre range there are large tracts of timber 
lands. 



DURANGO — GUANAJUATO. 249" 

The leading stock-raising sections are the partidos of Durango, El 
Ojo, Cuencame, Nazas, Inde, and Papasquiaro. 

Durango is one of the foremost mining States in Mexico, and some 
of the mining camps are historically famous for their yields. The best- 
known mines are Guanacevi, in the northwestern part of the State; El 
Oro and Inde, forming one district north of Durango City at an altitude 
of 8,500 feet (2,590 meters). Gold and silver are abundant in these 
veins; Bacis and Sapioris, almost west of Durango City, yielding gold 
and silver; San Dimas, northwest of the city and close to the Sonora 
frontier, chiefly silver with some gold; Promontorio, north of the city,, 
and not far from Potrillos (tin) and Coneto (silver), at 8,000 feet 
(2,438 meters), produces silver and some copper; Velardefia, southwest 
of Torreon, has silver, lead and copper ; Mapimi, northwest of Torreon,. 
silver, lead and gold. The Cerro del Mercado (Iron Mountain) is an 
immense deposit of iron close to the city of Durango. Sulphur, rubies 
and other valuable deposits are known to exist. 

Durango has developed several industries ; tanning is carried on regu- 
larly, carpets and rope are made from ixtle fiber, there are pottery works,, 
soap and candle factories, and cotton mills. 

The Mexican Central and Mexican International (National Railways of 
Mexico) enter the State; the system extends to the city of Durango and 
thence northwest to Tepehuanes, and branches have been built to Velar- 
defia, Mapimi, Tlahualilo and Descubridora. 

Indigenous languages are the Cora, Huichol and Tepehua. 

The State of Durango is divided politically into 13 Partidos, with 43; 
Municipalities, containing 7 cities, 14 towns, 93 villages, 301 organized 
estates and 1,746 hamlets. There is one colony to be established within 
the State. 

The Partidos are : Durango, Cuencame, El Oro, Inde, Mapimi, Nazas, 
Mezquital, Nombre de Dios, San Dimas, San Juan de Guadalupe, San 
Juan del Rio, Santiago Papasquiaro, Tamazula. 

The City of Durango is the principal city and the capital of the State. 
It has the name of "town of sunshine" on account of its delightful 
climate. It is 1,389 kilometers (863 miles) from Mexico City. There- 
are many fine buildings, notably the cathedral, considered one of the 
finest in the Republic. Banks, clubs, tramcars, telegraphs, telephones and 
electric lights make of it a modern city. Lerdo, the second city of im- 
portance in the State, and only a few moments' ride from Torreon 
(Coahuila), is in the center of a highly developed agricultural district,, 
and has made great progress industrially. 

GUANAJUATO. 

Guanajuato became a State of the Federation January 8, 1821, and its- 
constitution was promulgated May 14, 1861. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the State of San Luis Potosi ; on the east by the State of Queretaro ; on 
the south by the State of Michoacan, and on the west by the State of 
Jalisco. Its area is 28,363 square kilometers (10,948 square miles). Its 
population (1910) is 1,075,270, of whom 526,325 are males and 548,945' 
are females. 

The climate is temperate and agreeable, except in the higher altitudes 
of the mountain ranges, the mean temperature being 21° C. (about 70° F.), 
and the highest 28° C. (82.40° F.) during the hot months. During the 
rainy season the rainfall is heavy in the plains and valleys and moderate 
in the mountains. This season extends from the middle of May until the 
beginning of July. The prevailing winds are from the northeast, chang- 
ing to southeast at the approach of the rainy season. 



250 



MEXICO. 



The principal rivers are the Lerma, the Laja and the Turbio, the last 
two being affluents of ihe former. The Lernia River rises in the State 
of Mexico, traverses the State of Guanajuato for a distance of 147 kilo- 
meters (236 miles), and empties into the Pacific Ocean near San Bias, 




''L.\. Coxstaxcia" Street, Guanajl'ato. 



in the Territory of Tepic. The Laja rises in the Sierra de Guanajuato, 
and, after receiving: the waters of many affluents and traversing a course 
of 126 kilometers (203 miles), empties into the Lerma. The Turbio, or 
Gomez, waters a territory 113 kilometers in length from its rise in 
the Sierra de Guanajuato to its junction with the Lerma. This State 
is also irrigated by the Irapuato River and several smaller streams. The 



GUANAJUATO. 



251 



only lake is Yuririapiindaro (lake of blood), which is 97 square kilo- 
meters (36 square miles) in extent and contains several small islands. 
Near the valley of Santiago there is a large circular well, known as the 
Albercas, which is believed to be the crater of an extinct volcano. Its 



^f^?^^^^^..-^. 




"PoRFiRio Diaz" Tunnel. 

This tunnel was built to receive the overflow from the river running- 
through Guanajuato, and thus to prevent the disastrous floods which 
have at times overwhelmed the citv. 



waters are not potable and its depth has never been ascertained. Mineral 
springs are abundant; prominent among them is a spring near Silao to 



252 



MEXICO. 



which tlK- liulians altnhiuc iniraculnu.s pniiKrlics, and a imul spring near 
Irapuato. 

Tlic territory of tlie State is mountainous, hut there is a flat section 

known as the Bajio or lowlands, famous as heing one of the most fertile 
localities of the Republic for cereal crops. Agriculture and stock raising 
.are carried on in the valleys. The principal products are cereals and 
leguminous plants, niaixc. wheat, tobacco, alfalfa, chile, fruits and canary 




The Parish Church at Dolores, Hidalgo, State of Guanajuato. 

In front thereof a monument has been erected by a grateful people to 
their former "Cura" Hidalgo, "The Father of Mexican Independence." 



GUANAJUATO — GUERRERO. 253 

seed, of which last a great deal is exported. Hogs, sheep, goats and cattle 
are grown in abundance. 

The State of Guanajuato is one of the richest mineral areas in the 
world. The mining region follows the line of the angle formed by the 
Sierra Gorda and Sierra de Guanajuato, there being in all five mining 
districts. Gold, silver, mercury or cinnabar, tin, iron, lead, argentiferous 
lead, copper, argentiferous copper, magistral or sulphide of copper, bis- 
muth, hematite and sulphur are all mined in the State. The chief dis- 
tricts are that near the city of Guanajuato itself, where gold and silver 
both are found, and in which are some of the oldest mines of the Republic; 
Leon district, west of the capital, turns out gold, silver, iron, copper, tin, 
bismuth, mercury and lead; the Sierra Gorda district, northeast of the 
■capital, where silver-bearing galena is worked, and also copper and lead 
ores; (San Miguel de) Allende group, east of the capital, produces, be- 
sides gold and silver, tin, iron and mercury; the Santa Cruz district, 
southwest of the capital, where silver, gold and quicksilver are found. 

The principal industries are the manufacture of leather goods, palmetto 
liats, potteries, wine and tobacco; and there are woolen, cotton, flour and 
other mills. 

The National Railways of Mexico (National and Central) has main 
lines crossing the State. There is a branch from Silao, on the Central 
•division, to the city of Guanajuato; and from Irapuato the line to Guada- 
lajara (Jalisco) begins. Valle de Santiago, San Luis de la Paz, and San 
Gregorio are other places reached by branch lines. 

Indigenous languages are Cahita, Chichimeca, and Otomi. 

The State of Guanajuato is divided politically into 5 Departments, con- 
taining 32 Districts, with 45 Municipalities, 16 cities, 13 towns, 48 villages, 
474 organized estates, 3,594 hamlets. 

The Departments are Allende, Celaya, Guanajuato, Leon, Sierra Gorda. 

Guanajuato, the capital and chief city of the State of that name, 406 
kilometers (252 miles) from the City of Mexico, is one of the richest, 
■oldest and most picturesque towns of the Republic. It is well supplied 
-with electric light, tram cars (soon to be run by electricity), and the fine 
■engineering works constructed to control the waters of the river (Guana- 
juato) and also to furnish drinking water to the city, deserve special 
study. The Government Palace, Congress, the Mint, the State College, 
Market, Theater, Hospital and many historical structures and places, 
make the city very interesting. Some of the best mines of the State are 
In or near the city. Dolores Hidalgo, the residence of the parish priest 
who raised the cry for independence in 1810, is a small town north of the 
capital, situated in the midst of a beautiful and fertile plain. The national 
■Government plans to make of Dolores a sort of national sanctuary. 

GUERRERO. 

Guerrero became a State of the Federation May 18, 1847, and its con- 
stitution was promulgated October 25, 1862. 

Boundary. Area. Population. — The State is bounded on the north by the 
State of Michoacan, Mexico, Morelos and Puebla; on the east by the 
State of Oaxaca; on the south by the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by 
the State of Michoacan. The area is 64,756 square kilometers (24,996 
square miles). Its population is 605,437, of whom 301,833 are males and 
.303,604 are females. 

Climatic conditions vary according to the altitude of the districts. On 
the coasts the heat is excessive, from 35° to 36° C. (95° to 96.80° F.), 
and the rain falls in torrents, precipitation being moderat^ in the tem- 
perate lands only. Frosts are frequent in the high altitudes of the 
Sierras. 



254 MEXICO. 

Guerrero is mountainous throughout almost its entire extent, being 
traversed by the Sierra Aladre del Sur, which reaches its greatest altitude 
at 2,8U0 meters (9,186 feel). The valleys betwen the cordilleras are nar- 
row, and the highest peaks are Tlacotepec and Tiotepec. 2,800 meters 
(9,186 feet) and Escalera, 2,521 meters (8,269 feet) in height. 

The rivers of the State, on account of the broken surface of the ter- 
ritory, have very rapid currents. The principal is the Mexcala or Balsas, 
also known as the Atoyac or Poblano. Its headwaters are in the Tlaxco 
Mountains of the State of Tlaxcala, whence it enters Guerrero on the 
east, dividing the State into two sections, the southern occupied by the 
Sierra Madre range and the northern by the slopes of the mountain chains 
from the States of Mexico and Morelos. The river is 687 kilometers 
(427 miles) in length, but is navigable for small craft only. All the 
waters of the State are tributary to it. The principal lakes are Paya- 
hualco, Chantengo, Neixpa, and San Marcos. 

The Paciiic coast line of the State is about S(X) kilometers (310 miles) 
in extent, the shores being low, sandy, well sheltered, and possessing 
excellent ports and harbors. Acapulco, the principal port of the State, 
is classed among the finest harbors of the world, by reason of its beau- 
tiful, well-sheltered bay, measuring over six kilometers (about four miles) 
in length by over three kilometers (two miles) in breadth, and with a 
depth of about 16 fathoms. Other Pacilc ports in the State are Petlacala, 
Sihuatanejo and Papanoa. 

The depth of water at the entrance between Port Diamonte and Point 
Grifo is 20 to Zl fathoms; inside, the depth is 16 fathoms and under, the 
bottom holding well. Shelter is excellent, the harbor having a landlocked' 
anchorage about one mile square. Vessels may anchor close to shore; 
large ones discharge into lighters. 

Agriculture in this State is undeveloped. There is abundance of good 
and fertile land where maize, beans, rice, chickpeas, cotton, coffee, cacao, 
sugar cane, fruits and tobacco can Idc grown. At present the production 
is restricted to local needs. Stock raising is important, and the dairy in- 
dustry is developing. Manufacturing is confined to sugar cane products, 
wine, palm oil, some cotton spinning, tanning and simple domestic prod- 
ucts. The State is very rich in timber resources, especially hard tropic 
woods for construction, but easier access is necessary to develop them. 

The mineral wealth of Guerrero is considerable but as yet imperfectly 
studied. The principal mining districts are Hidalgo, in the extreme north- 
ern portion of the State not far from Iguala, where silver is the ore most 
secured. Quicksilver is found at Huitzuco. Aldama district is southwest 
of the above, where lead, gold and silver have been returned, with 
copper, iron and sulphur. The Bravos district, not far from the capital, 
is where gold placers have been worked. 

The State of Guerrero is divided politically into 14 Districts, with 67 
Municipalities, containing 13 cities, 2 towns, 300 villages, 196 organized 
estates and 1,052 hamlets. 

The Districts are : Abasolo, Alarcon, Allende, Aldama, Alvarez,. 
Bravos, Galeana, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Mina, Montes de Oca, Morelos, 
Tabares and Zaragoza. 

The capital and principal city is Chilpancingo, about in the center of 
the State, called also de los Bravos, and Ciudad Bravos, in honor of the 
revolutionary heroes. It is 319 kilometers (198 miles) from the City of 
Mexico, and 178 kilometers (111 miles) from the port of Acapulco. 
The city is small and picturesque, but has suffered severely from recent 
earthquakes. It is connected at present by good roads with the terminus 
of the railway at Balsas from Mexico City, and with Acapulco, but rail- 
ways to both places are projected. Acapulco is one of the best natural 
harbors on the Mexican Pacific coast; it is served regularly by the 



236 



MI-.XIIO. 



"Conipania Navicra de Pacifico, the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, 
the Canadian-Mexican Pacific Steamship Company, and the Kosmos 
Line. Iguala, one of the largest and most important towns in the State, 
js famous as the place where the "Plan of Iguala" was proclaimed by 
which Mexican liberty was asserted. The town lies in the center of a rich 
agricultural and mining district, and will be better known commercially 
when the railway between Acapulco and Mexico City is opened. 

HIDALGO. 

Hidalgo became a State of the Federation January 15, 1869, and the 
constitution was promulgated in 1870. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the States of San Luis Potosi and Veracruz; on the east by the States of 
Veracruz and Puebla ; on the south by the States of Tlaxcala and 
Mexico; and on the west by the State of Querctaro. Its area is 22,215 
square kilometers (8,575 square miles). Its population is (1910) 641,895, 
of whom 313,032 are males and 328,863 arc females. 

The State is mountainous, being traversed by the eastern ramification 
of the Sierra Madre. The southern and western portions are compara- 
tively flat. 

The climate is generally mild rather than cold on the uplands and 
plateaus, and hot or temperate according to the varying altitudes of the 
lower districts. 

There are no large rivers, the principal streams being the Tula and 
its tributaries, the Amajague and its afiflnents, and the Mctztitlan or Rio 




Cird's-eyf View of the City of Pachuca, State of Hidalgo. 



HIDALGO JALISCO. 257 

Grande and its branches. There are other rivers of lesser importance 
and several waterfalls, among them being the Regla cascade, whose 
waters are used by an electric company to supply motive power for 
several reduction works. The largest lake is the Metztitlan, which is 17 
kilometers (10^ miles) in length. Mineral springs abound. 

The chief agricultural products are the cereal crops, coffee, tobacco, 
fruits, peppers, maguey and sugar cane. The timber resources are con- 
siderable. 

Active mining operations have, since colonial times, been conducted 
at various points in the State, and this forms the most important in- 
dustry, as almost every district is a mining center. The principal mining 
camps are Pachuca, discovered in 1522 and celebrated because here 
Bartolome de Medina invented in 1557 the patio process. The city of 
Pachuca is 62 miles (100 kilometers) north of Mexico City on the west- 
ern slope of the eastern branch of the Sierra Madre; gold, silver, platinum, 
copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese and mercury are found. 
Real del Monte, on the eastern slope of the Sierra Madre, forms in reality 
part of the Pachuca district. El Chico is also on the western slope, just 
north of Pachuca. Zimapan, in the northern part of the State, produces 
chiefly silver-lead and silver-copper. 

The principal industries are the production of ores, the manufacture 
of cotton and woolen goods, bricks, tiles and native wares for local use. 

The National Railways of Mexico has two lines into Hidalgo as far 
as Pachula, and there are extensions to Irolo, Beristain through Tulan- 
cingo, and to Honey, and to Apulco and Tortugas. The Mexican Rail- 
way also has a branch to Pachula. 

Mexican and Otomi are the native Indian languages spoken. 

The State of Hidalgo is divided politically into 15 Districts, with 71 
Municipalities, containing 4 cities, 9 towns, 441 villages, 212 organized 
estates and 1,240 hamlets. 

The Districts are: Actopan, Apan, Atotonilco, Juejutla, Huichapan, 
Ixmiquilpan, Jacala, Metztitlan, Molango, Tenango, Tula, Tulancingo, 
Zacualtipan, Z'imapan, Pachuca. 

The capital and principal city, Pachuca, 109 kilometers (68 miles) from 
Mexico City, is one of the oldest mining centers and one of the first 
Spanish settlements in New Spain. It has all the appearance of a 
mining camp, but there are attractive buildings, such as the Palace of 
Justice, the Scientific and Literary Institute, an Observatory, a School 
of Mines and a _ Library. A fine theater, good banks, tramcars, and 
electric service with telegraph and telephones, make the city modern. 

JALISCO. 

Jalisco became a State of the Federation October 4, 1824, and its con- 
stitution was promulgated December 6, 1857. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the Territory of Tepic and the States of Durango, Zacatecas and Aguas- 
calientes ; on the northeast by the State of San Luis Potosi ; on the east 
by the States of Guanajuato and Michoacan; on the south by the States 
of Michoacan and Colima ; and on the southwest and west by the Pacific 
Ocean. Its area is 86,752 square kilometers (33,486 square miles). Its 
population is 1,202,802, of whom 584,672 are males and 618,130 are 
females. 

The climate of the State varies according to altitude, but in general 
it is cool in the northeast, mild in the center, and hot in the lower areas 
of the south and southwest. Taking all in all, it may be said that it is the 
finest State in the Republic, considering climate, resources and scenery. 

The eastern portion of the State is traversed by the Sierra Madre 




'SI ^ 



u •^, 



o 




260 MEXICO. 

range, in which occur a number of imposing mountain peaks. The most 
noted of these are the Tapalpa, Tigrc, Nevado, and Colima. The latter 
is an active volcano the elevation of which is 4,304 meters (14,120 feet) 
above the level of the sea. The northern and northeastern portions of 
the State are very mountainous and form a veritable network of spurs 
and isolated peaks from the Sierra Madre range. Between these are 
found picturesque and fertile valleys of varying elevations and extent. 
The State in its entirety possesses a vast territory, watered by numerous 
lakes and rivers. 

The largest and most important stream is the Santiago, or Lerma, 
River. This river rises in Lake Chapala in the extreme southeastern 
portion of the State, and flows in a northwesterly direction through 
Jalisco and the Territory of Tepic, emptying into the Pacilic Ocean at 
a point north of the port of San Bias. It is about 750 kilometers (466 
miles) long, and drains a territory containing, it is estimated, 25.000 square 
kilometers (9,650 square miles). In its course toward the sea this stream 
forms beautiful cascades near the village of Juanacatlan in the vicinity 
of the city of Guadalajara. These are of such a grand and imposing 
character that they have been appropriately called the Niagara of 
Mexico. Their height is about 20 meters (66 feet). The river at this 
point is 160 meters (525 feet) wide. The force generated by these cele- 
brated falls is enormous, and a large electric plant has been erected 
there. This plant supplies electric power to the city of Guadalajara, 
the capital of the State, 7 kilometers (4^2 miles) distant. This water 
power is also utilized by a large number of factories in Guadalajara and 
vicinity in the operation of their plants, and is fast making that city one 
of the great manufacturing centers of the Republic. 

Other important rivers of the State are the Acaponeta and San Pedro, 
both of which flow into Lake Mexcaltitlan. The Armenia and Ameca 
rivers are also streams of considerable size and importance. One of the 
most beautiful lakes of the State, and the largest in the Republic, is Lake 
Chapala, the surface area of which is 234 square kilometers (about 90 
square miles). The waters of this lake contain a great abundance of 
edible fish. German carp abound, the Mexican Government having 
stocked the lake some years ago with this variety of fish. Lake Chapala 
is also quite a summer resort. Comfortable hotels have been built upon 
its shores, and hundreds of people from Guadalajara and surrounding 
country spend the summers there. 

Other lakes, among the numerous bodies of fresh water in the State, are 
Magdalena, or San Juanito, Mexcaltitlan, Cajijitlan, Tizapanito, Zapotlan 
and Quitopan. The coast line is about 500 kilometers (311 miles) long, 
and has few natural harbors, Chamela being the best. 

Sugar is one of the leading products, and the cultivation of cotton 
could be greatly increased, the native product at present not being suf- 
ficient to supply the needs of the cotton industry, which has developed 
to such an extent in Mexico. Cotton planters would, therefore, be sure 
to find in the Republic an excellent home market for their product. The 
lowlands on the coast are hot, and on them thrive a great variety of 
tropical and sub-tropical products, while the climate, invigorated by the 
sea breeze, is not as enervating as that of the eastern coast of Mexico. 
Cedar, pine, oak, and other valuable trees arc found in the mountains, 
and cabinet woods also abound. 

Maize, barley, beans, oats, olives, onions, potatoes, and wheat in 
higher regions, grow with great abundance, some producing two crops 
through the State, so that one thousand feet or more below the wheat belt, 
a year. The fruits are numerous — dates, figs, grapes, lemons, limes, and 
oranges being celebrated; these grow in the wonderful barraiicds cutting 




San Francisco Street, Guadalajara, State of Jalisco. 



262 MKxico. 

but within literally a stone's thrown of it, are found coffee, tobacco and 
tropical fruits. Eastern Jalisco has been called the granary of Mexico. 
Cattle are being cultivated with greater ambition, and the breed is im- 
proving with the importation of blooded bulls from abroad. 

The mineral resources of the State are considerable. The principal pro- 
ducing properties are silver, gold, tin, copper and zinc, with iron, lead and 
cinnabar known to exist. The best-known mining districts are : Ktzatlan, 
to the northwest of Cniadalajara ; Ameca, just south of the above; Autlan, 
southwest of Guadalajara: Ayutla, in the same neighborhood, and Hosto- 
tipaquillo, in the northern part of the State near the Santiago Ri\ir. 

In addition to the industries connected with agriculture ami niining, 
Jalisco is developing into a manufacturing State of notable proportions. 
In Guadalajara are cotton mills, a flour mill, a tannery, a shoe factory 
and tile works ; many articles for local consumption are also manufac- 
tured in the State. 

The ^le.xican Central Railway (National Railways of Mexico) has a 
main line running to Jalisco, extending two-thirds of the distance across 
the State to San Marcos and Ameca ; the Southern Pacific of Mexico has 
a part of its line, from Guadalajara, already constructed, and this will 
meet the line coming down the west coast and passing through the 
Territory of Tepic; the National Railways has now a line opened to 
the south into the State of Colima to the port of Manzanillo; in the 
northeastern part of Jalisco the old main line of the Central (now 
National Railways) passes across the State through Encarnacion and 
Lagos. 

Huichol is the Indian language used when spoken. 

The State is divided politically into 12 Cantones, containing 104 
Municipalities, in which are 18 cities, 34 towns, 226 villages, 385 organized 
estates, and 6,819 hamlets. 

The Cantones are: Guadalajara, Lagos, La Barca, Sayula, Ameca, 
Autlan, Colotlan, Ciudad Guzman, Mascota, Teocaltiche, Ahualulco -and 
Jocotepec. 

Guadalajara, 613 kilometers (381 miles) by rail from Mexico City, is 
the capital and principal city of the State, being the second largest in the 
Republic. It contains fine government buildings, a large cathedral, the 
largest theater in the Republic, banks, a chamber of commerce, electric 
trolleys and lights with power, and in many ways is rightly considered 
the most modern and progressive city in Mexico. The public parks are 
the pride of the people. 

MEXICO. 

Mexico became a State of. the Federation October 4, 1824, and its con- 
stitution was promulgated October 1, 1870. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by the 
State of Hidalgo ; on the east by the States of Tlaxcala and Puebia ; on 
the south by the States of Morelos and Guerrero : on the west by the State 
of Michoacan ; and on the northwest by the State of Queretaro. The 
Federal District, which of course limits to some extent the area of the 
State of Mexico, is so nearly a part of the latter that the lines of contact 
are not mentioned in defining the boundaries of the State. Its area is 
23,185 square kilometers (8,949 square miles). Its population (1910) is 
975,019, of whom 482,287 are males and 492,732 are females. 

The State occupies one of the most beautiful regions on earth. The 
northern portion is a plain, intersected by small foothills and covered with 
salt lakes and marshy lands; this is the land of the cactus and agave. 
The eastern part is occupied by the Popocatepetl range, fertile lands, snow- 



MEXICO. 



263 



covered peaks, smoking volcanoes, and the celebrated valley of Texcoco, 
The center is the region of forests and mountains, the valley of Toluca 
occupying the highest plateau. The Sierra Nevada mountain range, with 
its snow-covered peak of Popocatepetl, the highest in the country, rising 
5,410 meters (17,748 feet) above sea level, traverses the eastern section; 
to the north is Iztaccihuatl, 4,900 meters (16,076 feet) in height; and to the 
south runs the Ajusco range, which marks the limit of the valley of 
Mexico; its highest peak is Ajusco. The Sierra de Guadelupe lies north 
of the Federal District, and to the northwest of the Ajusco range is the 
snow-capped volcano of Toluca, 4,600 meters (15,091 feet) above the level 
■of the sea, in whose crater are two lakes of potable water. The valley 
of Toluca is a beautiful spot, more than 2,000 meters (6,562 feet) above 
sea level, being situated on the highest plateau of the Republic and em- 
bracing within its limits the Federal District and the City of Mexico, 
capital of the Republic. 

Climatological conditions vary according to altitudes. In the valley of 
Toluca, 3,176 meters (10,420 feet) above sea level, it is exceedingly cold, 
while the valley of Mexico enjoys a temperate and healthy climate, al- 
though it is somewhat variable. The rainfall is uncertain — scarce at times 
and then again falling abundantly. Frost is not frequent. 

The chief river is the Lerma, which passes through the States of Quere- 
taro, Michoacan and Guanajuato; this is the most important stream of 
the country, measuring 452 kilometers (281 miles) from its source to its 
mouth in Lake Chapala. Next in importance is the Cuautitlan, flowing 
into the Tula River. The San Geronimo River and the Chontalcuatlan 
River originate in the melting snows of the Nevado de Toluca and join 
to form the Amacusas River in the State of Morelos._ The valley of 
Mexico contains five important lakes, three of which lie wholly within 
its boundaries, viz. : Zumpango, San Cristobal, and Xaltocan, while Texcoco 
and Chalco extend into other States. The Lerma Lagoon lies wholly 
within the State. There are several cataracts in the State of Mexico, one 
named Niagara; the water power from them is being utilized in many 
cases. 

The agricultural products are abundant; all the cereals and the maguey 
plant are cultivated, and there are extensive plantations of rice, coffee, 
sugar cane, linseed, tobacco, beans and peas. Tropical^ fruits and the grape 
are prolific in the warmer regions. Dairy farming is successful. Stock 
raising is a source of wealth — sheep, cattle, hogs, goats, horses, asses and 
mules being raised. 

The State has always been noted for its production of precious metals — 
gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, tin, antimony and cinnabar being known. 
The most important mining districts in the State are: El Oro, about 110 
miles (177 kilometers) northwest of the City of Mexico, at an altitude of 
9,500 feet (2,895 meters), which has a greater output of gold than any 
other similar district in the Republic. The boundary line between the 
States of Mexico and Michoacan passes through the camp. Sultepec, in 
the southwestern portion of the State, and including Zacualptan, to the 
southeast of it, is a large mining section producing gold, silver and other 
metals. Temascaltepec, in the extreme southwest of the State, produces 
gold and silver, with antimony ores. 

The leading industries, apart from those connected with mining, are the 
manufacture of cotton and woolen goods, brick, cheese and butter, wines, 
glassware, pottery, and local supplies. 

The National Railways of Mexico has a main line from the City of 
Mexico through Lerma, Toluca and Ixlahuaca, with a branch to El Salto ; 
there are lines also to Arnanalco from Toluca, and to Tenango ; a line 
runs also to Irolo. The Mexican Railway extends to Teotihuacan, Otumba 



264 MEXICO. 

and Irolo. The Interoccanic Railway has two branches, one to Puebla 
on the north and the other to the south through Chalco and Otumba to 
Morelos. There arc also special lines serving the mining properties of 
large estates. 

Matlatzinga, Mazahua and Otomi are the Indian dialects spoken. 

The State is divided politically into 16 Districts containing 114 Munici- 
palities with 9 cities, 31 towns, 596 villages, 368 organized estates and 791 
liandets. 

The Districts are: Toluca, Cuautitlan, Chalco, El Oro de Hidalgo, 
Ixtlahuaca, Jilotepec, Lcrnui. Otunilia, Sulteptc, Temascaltepec, Tenan- 
cingo, Tenango, Texcoco, Tlalnepantla, Valle de Bravo. Zumpango. 

The principal city and capital of the State is Toluca (de Lerdo), 900 
feet (274 meters) higher than the City of Mexico, and situated 12> kilo- 
meters (45 miles) from it. It is an important commercial center, and near 
large and thriving haciendas. It is well drained and healthy, but cold in 
winter. Many of the public buildings are new, and are fine examples of 
municipal architecture. There is a good public library, three new hos- 
pitals, a scientific and literary institute, a trade school for boys and a 
normal trade school for girls, and an academy of music. There are tram- 
cars, telephones, and electric lights. The city is in touch with the rest of 
the Republic by the Federal telegraph system. 

MICHOACAN. 

Michoacan became a State of the Federation October 4, 1824, and its 
constitution was promulgated February 1, 1858. 

Bovudary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by the 
State of Guanajuato; on the northeast by the State of Queretaro ; on the 
east by the State of Mexico ; on the south by the State of Guerrero 
and the Pacific Ocean ; on the west by the States of Colima and Jalisco. 
Its area is 58,694 square kilometers (22,656 square miles). Its population 
(1910) is 991,649, of whom 488,244 are males, and 503,405 are females. 

The general character of the land is mountainous, and it is immensely 
rich in vegetation. The coast line, which is generally low, measures 163 
kilometers (101 miles) in extent. The Sierra Madre Mountains traverse 
the State, sloping down, in the southern part, to the basin of the Balsas 
River, and continuing their course on the farther bank of the river 
as the Sierra Coalcoman. Some of the peaks are remarkable ; such is the 
volcano Jorullo thrown up from a level plain about the middle of the 
eighteenth centurj'. 

The climate of the State is varied, depending upon altitude. The 
heat is great along the coast and in the foothill valleys of the Sierra Madre, 
but higher, toward the central tableland, the region is temperate and even 
cold. 

The principal rivers are the Lerma, which irrigates the upper region 
of the State, running east and west, and, after receiving the waters of 
several affluents, finally empties into Lake Chapala; the Duero, flowing 
from southwest to northwest, and the Balsas, called also Zacatula and 
Atoyac, which flows from east to west, and has several tributaries. The 
Lake of Chapala is on the Jalisco boundary, one-si.xth of it belonging to 
the State of Michoacan. In the same region are the smaller lakes of 
Tacascuaro and Magdalena. The Lake of Patzcuaro contains five small 
islands, three of which are inhabited. It has no known outlet, is aliout 20 
miles long by 10 broad (32 kilometers by 16 kilometers), and lies at an 
altitude of 7,000 feet (2,133 meters). Other bodies of water lying within 
the State limits are Lake Cuitzeo, the lagoon of Zirahuen, and of 



266 MKXico. 

Zipinieo. There arc numerous waterfalls along the river courses, and 
man}' mineral springs exist in the country. 

The agricultural potentialities of the State are great, and though the 
present methods and appliances employed arc primitive, Michoacan occu- 
pies a leading position in the Republic for its yield of staple cereals, and 
it grows also canary seed, sesame and linseed, coffee, vanilla, rubber, to- 
bacco, sugar cane, fruits of all kinds and cabinet woods. The cattle in- 
dustry is a flourishing one. 

Alichoacan is one of the foremost mining States in the Republic, (iold, 
silver, copper, iron, cinnabar, lead, sulphur, tin, and coal are fnund. I'.uild- 
ing material of stone is likewise known. 

The principal mining centers are Tlalpujahua (gold and silver), 
Angangueo (silver), Inguaran (copper), and Coalcoman (iron). Tlal- 
pujahua has the famous old mines called Borda and Coronas; the region 
lies close to El Oro (State of Mexico), and has been worked even before 
1743, when they are said to have yielded in silver alone 33 million pesos. 
The most important mine today, and indeed one of the richest in the Re- 
public, is Dos Estrellas, situated close to the boundary line and part of the 
El Oro district; it yields both gold and silver. Angangueo district is 
further to the south, but still in the northeast part of the State, and fur- 
nishes chiefly silver. Inguaran is in the southern portion of the State, not 
far from the Balsas River ; the mines are low grade copper. Coalcoman 
is in the extreme west of the State, in the Sierra Madre mountains, but the 
region is but little explored; besides the iron deposits known to exist, gold, 
silver, copper and lead are reported, and an iron mountain, even greater 
than that in Durango, is mentioned. 

The manufacturing activities are confined mainly to the production of 
cotton and silk shawls, cotton and woolen goods, palm hats, lace and cm- 
broideries, sugar-cane products, pulque, mescal, cheese, wax matches, and 
beer. Sericulture and the culture of olive trees and grapevines are being 
introduced. The lack of railway facilities is at present a hindrance to the 
development of anything but native and local indutries. 

Michoacan has no port of entry. 

The National Railways of Mexico has a line from the City of Mexico 
through Morelia to Uruapan ; and from the Central- (National Railways), 
where it crosses the northern section of the State to Guadalajara, a branch 
runs from Yurecuaro through Zamora to Los Reyes ; these branches will 
be united. The Pacific Railway crosses the State in the extreme northeast, 
and has a branch from Maravatio to Angangueo. 

Indian languages recognized are Mazahua, Mexican, Otomi, Tarasco 
and Zoque. 

The State is divided politically into 16 Districts with 78 Municipalities, 
containing 10 cities, 25 towns, 257 villages, 2,746 hamlets and 4 colonies. 

The Districts are : Morelia, Apatzingan, Ario de Rosales, Coalcoman, 
Huetamo, Jiquilpan, La Piedad, Maravatio, Patzcuaro, Puruandiro, Salazar, 
Tacambaro, Uruapan, Zamora, Zinapecuaro, Zitacuaro. 

Morelia is the capital and chief city of the State of Michoacan, situated 
365 kilometers (227 miles) from Mexico City. It is one of the centers of 
the Mexican revolution for independence, and is moreover distinguished as 
the birthplace of the national hero Morelos, for whom it was finally named. 
The cathedral is considered the finest in the Republic. There are also a 
number of fine public buildings, an aqueduct, a girls' academy, the San 
Nicolas college, the oldest collegiate relic in Mexico and the second of its 
kind in the new world, a public library and a museum. The city has a 
tramcar service, telephones, electric lights and banks. Zamora, northwest 
■of the capital and not far from Lake Chapala, is of next importance. 




Cathedral at Mokelia, State of Michoacan. 



268 AlKXKO. 

MORELOS. 

Morelos became a State of the Federation April 7, 1869, and its con- 
stitution was promulgated June 20, 1870. 

Boundary, Area, Popiilat'wn. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the Federal District and the State of Mexico ; on the east by the State of 
Puebla ; on the south by the State of Guerrero; and on the west by the 
State of ^Mexico. Its area is 7,082 square kilometers (2,734 square miles). 
Its population (1910) is 179,814, of whom 89,557 are males and 90,257 are 
females. 

The topographical conditions are varied, embracing high mountain 
ranges, snow-capped volcanoes, beautiful valleys, and deep ravines. The 
northern part is the mountainous section. There rises the lofty Sierra 
de Ajusco, while the Huitzilac, Tepoctlan, and Santo Domingo ranges 
extend from west to east until they meet the Tlayacapon mountains. The 
highest peaks in these ranges arc Yepac, Ololuica, and Ocotecatl. In the 
northeast are the Popocatepetl and the Ixtaccihuatl ranges, while other 
mountain chains cross the State in all directions. 

The climate is hot in the southern and central regions, cold in the north- 
ern or mountainous portions, and temperate on the mountain slopes. 
Rainfall is moderate throughout the territory with the exception of the 
slopes of the northern mountains, where it is very abundant. Frosts are of 
infrequent occurrence. 

The State may be said to belong to the basin of the Amacusac River, 
which traverses it from west to east, and empties finally into the Balsas 
River. This river is formed by the junction of the San Geronimo and 
Chontalcuallan and receives a large number of tributary streams, among 
them the Chalma, Alpuyeca, Tepalcapa, Yautepec, Jojutla, Tlaquiltenango, 
and Cuautla rivers. The principal lake is Lake Tequesquiten, which 
occupies the site of the old town bearing the same name, and which, by 
reason of a subsidence of the ground, due to frequent inundations, was 
engulfed about half a century ago by the waters used in irrigating the land. 
The church spire may yet be seen in the middle of the lake. Others are 
the Miacatlan and Hueyapan lakes. Mineral hot springs abound. 

From an agricultural standpoint, Morelos is one of the richest States in 
Mexico. The principal products are sugar cane, rice, corn, coffee, wheat, 
and garden vegetables. The first cane plantation and sugar mill in Mexico 
was established by Cortes in TIaltenango, and since that time its culture 
has advanced steadily and continuously, it being now the leading article 
of production of the State of Morelos. In addition to sugar, rice, and 
coffee, the chief cereals are grown. Stock raising is not as advanced as 
it should be. The forest resources of the State are considerable. 

Mining occupies an inferior position in the State, although denounce- 
ments have been made of claims of gold, silver, copper, lead, cinnabar and 
coal. Deposits of gypsum and clay occur, and quarries of white and veined 
marble are found; building stone, lithographic stone, and rose garnet are 
also reported. 

Morelos is an important mercantile center, not only on account of its 
proximity to the Federal District, but also by reason of its immense sugar 
interests. Manufacturing, however, is confined to only a few neighbor- 
hoods. In Cuernavaca is the center of a highly developed pottery industry, 
which has made an international reputation for itself. 

The National Railways of Mexico enter the State by its main line from 
the City of Mexico to Iguala and Balsas (Guerrero), passing through 
Cuernavaca. The Interoceanic Railway passes across the State from 
Mexico to Puente de Ixtla through Cuautla. 

Mexican and Otomi are the indigenous Indian languages. 



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270 MEXICO. 

The State is divided politically into 6 Districts, with 26 Municipalities^ 
containing 6 cities, 13 towns, 106 villages, 35 organized estates, 39 ham- 
lets and 3 colonies. 

The Dis'tricts are: Cuernavaca, Morelos, Jojutla, Jonacatcpec, Tetecala, 
Yautepec. 

Cuernavaca is the chief city and the capital of tlic State. It is 76 
kilometers (47 miles) from the City of Mexico. It is both a health 
resort and a commercial center, possessing very fine pulilic buildings^ 
among them the palace of Cortes, an observatory, a public library, a 
cathedral, bnaks, good parks, trams, telephones and telegraphs. Cuautla 
is another good health resort of the State, best known on account of 
its hot sulphur springs. 

NUEVO LEON. 

Nuevo Leon became a State of the Federation ]\Iay 7, 1824, and its 
constitution was promulgated October 4, 1857, and revised in 1876. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the State of Coahuila ; on the northeast by the United States (Te.xas) 
and the State of Tamaulipas ; on the east by the State of Tamaulipas ; on 
the south and southwest by the State of San Luis Potosi ; and on the 
west by the State of Coahuila. Its area is 61,343 square kilometers 
(23,679 square miles). Its population (1910) is 368,929, of whom 184,651 
are males and 184,278 are females. 

The Sierra Madre Mountains traverse the State at a mean elevation 
of 1,676 meters (5,498 feet) above sea level for a distance of 252 kilo- 
meters (157 miles). Among its numerous peaks, the Potosi is the prin- 
cipal, its summit being covered with snow during part of the summer. 
These mountains come to an abrupt end in the northern part of the 
State; here another chain starts whose highest peaks are known as the 
Silla, Mitra, Topo, and Salinas. At the latter point the chain is bifur- 
cated, forming two new ranges, viz. : the Sierra de Gomas on the north 
and the Sierra de Picacho on the south. 

The climate varies according to the altitude, but it is generally tem- 
perate and healthy, the extreme of heat being found in the north and east 
where the land is low, while on the highlands of the south a moderate 
temperature prevails, varying in the Sierra Madre Mountains according 
to the altitude. The rainfall is variable, and winds come in general 
from the east and northeast. 

Twelve rivers and many smaller streams irrigate the State, besides 
numberless brooks. None of these water courses, however, are navigable. 
The principal river is the Salado, abounding in fishes and fine pearl 
oysters. It receives the waters of many tributaries and flows from west 
to east, emptj'ing in the Rio Bravo. The Santa Catarina, the Ramos, the 
Pilon, the Rio Grande de San Juan, the Potosi, the Hualahuises, and' 
Pablillo rivers follow in the order mentioned. There are also two lagoons, 
but no lakes. Among the numerous mineral springs are the Topo Chico,. 
near the city of Monterrey, San Ignacio, near Linares, Potrero Prieto, 
near Galeana. 

The agricultural production is considerable, consisting of most of th'^ 
cereals, fruits, and vegetables. Cattle raising is one of the greatest 
sources of wealth in the State — goats, sheep, beef cattle, horses, hogs, 
asses and mules being bred. 

In the State are important lead and zinc mines, and some silver also 
is obtained. The important mining districts are Sabinas Hidalgo, Valle- 
cillo, Villaldama. Sabinas Hidalgo is directly nerth of Monterrey, and 
produces silver-lead ore. Vallecillo is even further from the capital, the 
ore being silver, lead and zinc. Villaldama is west of Sabinas and about 



NUEVO LEOX OAXACA. 271 

60 miles (96 kilometers) from Alonterrey; lead with some iron, lead- 
silver and zinc are the ores mined. 

The industries are altogether those connected with agriculture and the 
smelting works in Monterrej-, but local plants of long standing turn out 
blankets and leather work celebrated throughout the Republic. 

The National Railways of Mexico (as the Mexican National) cross 
the State from Nuevo Laredo on the way to Mexico City; it has also 
an important division to the port of Matamoros in the State of Tamauli- 
pas; the Central (National Railways) has a line across the State to 
Tampico (Tamaulipas), and the International Railroad has a division 
between Reata (Coahuila) to Monterrey. There are also local hnes to 
Linares, Topo Chico and San Pedro. 

The State is divided politically into 49 Municipalities, containing 6 
cities, 42 towns, 5 villages, 513 organized estates, and 1,956 hamlets. 

The capital and chief city is Monterrej^, 975 kilometers (606 miles) from 
the City of Mexico. It is sometimes called the Chicago of Mexico, on 
account of its progress and industrial activit3\ There is excellent sewage 
and water system, electric trolley and light service, with new public 
buildings, banks, and thoroughly equipped smelters. In addition, there 
are breweries, ice factories, flour mills, and other manufacturing plants. 
The citj- is a great railroad center, and it is said that its tonnage is second 
only to that of the City of Mexico. 

OAXACA. 

Oaxaca became a State of the Federation January 31, 1824, and its 
constitution was promulgated September 15, 185L 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the States of Puebla and Veracruz; on the east by the State of Chiapas; 
on the south by the Pacific Ocean ; and on the west by the State of 
Guerrero. Its area is 91,664 square kilometers (35,383 square miles). 
Its population (1910) is 1,041,035, of whom 510,441 are males and 530,594 
are females. 

Oaxaca occupies a beautiful and fertile region, irrigated by a number 
of rivers and lesser streams which traverse the numerous valleys. The 
Sierra Madre Mountains cross the whole State, their ramifications ex- 
tending throughout the territory, and forming such valleys as the 
Nochitlan or Mixteco, 2,111 meters (about 6,000 feet) above sea level. 
The maritime range, called Sierra del Sur, is composed of high mountains 
whose slopes are covered by virgin forests. The Zempoaltepec is the 
starting point of the several ramifications of the Sierra JNIadre. The 
beautiful A^alley of Oaxaca or Antequera occupies the greater part of the 
central region. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is traversed by the Tarifa 
and Chimalpa mountains. 

The climate is generalh- hot on the seacoast and lowlands adjacent 
to the State of Veracruz, temperate in the valley of Oaxaca and on the 
mountain slopes, and cold in the higher altitudes and throughout almost 
the whole region of the Mixteca Alta, Rainfall is moderate in the State 
and frosts are of infrequent occurrence. 

The chief rivers of the northern watershed are the Coatzacoalcos, 
known also as El Corte, which flows from the State of Oaxaca into the 
State of Veracruz and falls into the Gulf of Mexico at Puerto Mexico 
(Coatzacoalcos) ; the Choapan, which is one of the streams that go to 
form the river known as the San Juan, in the State of Veracruz ; and 
the Quiotepec, which, in the State of Veracruz, becomes the Papaloapam. 
The rivers of the southern watershed are the Arenas, on the boundary 
between Oaxaca and Chiapas, the Ostuta, the Xocoapa, the Estacada, the 



1/1 MEXICO. 

Juchitan, tlie Tehuantepac, the Mecaltepcc, the Copalita, the Verde with 
its tributary the Penoles, and the Ometepec, forming the boundary be- 
tween Oaxaca and Guerrero. Many of these streams can scarcely be 
called rivers, on account of their short courses. The principal lakes are 
the Superior and the Inferior, really lagoons, as they are insets from 
the Pacitic Ocean. There are other lagoons of the same character, but 
smaller. Several mineral springs are known, but little visited. 

Few of the States of the Republic possess greater natural resources, but 
so far they are only slightly developed. Between the tropical coastal 
plains and the cooler inland regions almost every variety of timber is 
found, while coffee, indigo, vanilla, cochineal, cacao, rice, cotton, sugar- 
cane and fibrous plants are all found as natural products. The State gov- 
ernment encourages agricultural enterprise, and it has demonstrated that 
the staples like maize, rice and sugar-cane are increasing in value. The 
celclirated tobacco district of £/ V allc Nacioiial is in Oa.xaca, and here 
some of the best tobacco of the Republic is grown. Oaxaca is claimed 
by the Indians to be the original home of the cochineal, the insect from 
which comes the wonderful dye that so distinguished the sarapcs and 
other native cloths so admired by the conquerors. 

The State is rich in mineral resources, but no persistent effort has 
been made to develop them. The principal minerals found are gold, 
silver, iron, lead, coal, antimony, cinnabar and petroleum. The principal 
mining areas are as follows: Sierra Juarez range has the mines of 
Ixtlan, north and somewhat east of Oaxaca City about 80 kilometers 
(50 miles), producing both gold and silver; the Tlacolula district, 29 
kilometers (18 miles) east of Oaxaca, showing abundance of both gold 
and silver; Taviche is a promising camp near Ocotlan, southeast of 
Oaxaca, with gold and silver ; Taviche has been rapidly developed duriiig 
recent years, although some of the old mines date back to the colonial 
times ; San Jose, Totolapam, Ocotlan, Zimatlan, San Pedro, Lachigalla, 
Ejutla and Poblete are near each other and about 120 kilometers (75 
miles) south and west of Oaxaca City. Peras, southeast of Oaxaca City, 
shows gold, as does Etla, 19 kilometers (12 miles) north of the capital. 
Tlaxiaco, about 160 kilometers (100 miles) northwest of Oaxaca City, is 
a region showing coal and iron. Lead is combined with silver in mines 
in the Tehuantepec district. 

The industries of the State are largely agricultural and mineral, Init 
there are local manufactures of cotton and woolen cloth, furniture, pot- 
tery, candles, soap, and tobacco. The capital itself is celebrated for the 
peculiarly fine sarapcs made there by the Indians on primitive domestic 
looms. 

The Mexican Southern (National Railways of Mexico) is one of the 
two railways to enter the State. It comes from the north to Oaxaca 
City; there are local lines from here to Zimatlan and San Pablo, and to 
Ejutla. The Tehuantepec National Railway crosses the State from the 
port of Salina Cruz on its way to Puerto Mexico. A survey is completed 
for a line to run north from Salina Cruz to reach the City of Oaxaca. 

Oaxaca is one of the maritime States of Mexico bordering on the 
Pacific Ocean, and has a coast line of 410 kilometers (255 miles). These 
shores are low and sandy. The natural ports are Chacahua, Puerto 
Escondido, Puerto Angel, San Augustin Pluatules, San Diego, La 
Ventosa, and Salina Cruz. Salina Cruz has a deep harbor, where the 
largest vessels may safely anchor. Puerto Angel is a sheltered port, 
quite deep, but too narrow to permit the passage of large vessels. These 
. are the only ports open to foreign and coastwise traffic. There are num- 
berless bays, bars, roads, and a few islands. The Gulf of Tehuantepec is 
■ one of the most important in the Republic, being about 210 kilometers 
(130 miles) in length from east-southeast to west-northwest, and 55 
kilometers (34 miles) from north to south. 



274 Mi-:\icu. 



About 15 Indian families with many branches are found in Oaxaca, 
and their hmguagcs arc spoken in their homes. Amusgo, Cuicateco, 
Cohita, Chinantcco, Chocho, Chontal, Huave, Mazateco, Mcxicano, Mixe, 
Mixteco, Popoloco, Trique, Zapotcco, and Zoque arc the names given by 
Penafiel, ahhough different authorities supply other classifications. 

The State is divided politically into 11 Districts, with 1,164 Municipal- 
ities, containing 5 cities, 36 towns, 1,132 villages, 168 organized estates 
and 796 hamlets. 

The Districts arc : Del Centro, Coixtlahuaca, Cuicatlan, Choapan. 
Eiutla, Etla, Muaiuapan, Ixtlan, Jamiltepcc, Juchitan, luquila, Juxtlahuaca, 
Miahuatlan, Nochixtlan, Octolan, Pochutla, Putla, Silacayoapan, Tehuan- 
tepec, Teotitlan, Teposculula, Tlacolula, Tlaxiaco, Tuxtepec, Villa Alta, 
Yautepec, Zimatlan. 

Oaxaca the city is the capital of the State of the same name, and ons 
of the most interesting cities of the Republic. It is 464 kilometers (288 
miles) from Mexico City, and the same distance from Veracruz. It was 
the early home of both President Porfirio Diaz and of the patriot and 
national hero Benito Juarez. Its age makes the city very attractive, but 
it is quite modern in many ways, possessing tram-cars, electric lights, 
telephones, and other factors of comfort. Some of the best-known mines 
of the State are in the neighborhood. Another feature connected with 
Oaxaca is the fact that from the city the excursion is made, about 40 
kilometers (25 miles) to the southeast, to the ruins of Mitla, some of 
the best-preserved prehistoric remains of all Mexico. The architectural 
beauties of Oaxaca must not be overlooked, and some of the public build 
ings are good specimens of municipal activity. 

Salina Cruz, situated on the Gulf of Tehuantcpec, 25 kilometers (16 
miles) from the city of that name, is the Pacific terminus of the Tehuan- 
tcpec National Railway; its outer harbor is formed by two breakwaters 
and there is an inner harbor in which steamers of deep draught can moor 
alongside the docks. The whole of Salina Cruz is Federal property, in 
which land is only rented for terms of years from the Government. Hav- 
ing direct connection with the interior of the Republic by means of the 
Tehuantepec Railwaj', and with eastern ports from Puerto Mexico at the 
northern terminus of that line, Salina Cruz is also served on the Pacific 
Ocean by steamers to national and foreign ports. 

The Compafiia Naviera del Paciiico, a Mexican company with a fleet of 
steamers running regularly between Salina Cruz and Guaymas. 

Pacific Mail Steamship Company, regular schedule between Pa«ama 
and San Francisco, with stops at most Pacific intermediate ports. 

Canadian-Mexican Pacific Company, regular schedule between Van- 
couver and Victoria, B. C, and Salina Cruz. 

American-Hawaiian Steamship Companj^ regular schedule to San Fran- 
cisco, and the Hawaiian Islands, and also to San Diego, San Francisco 
and Puget Sound. 

Kosnios Line, regular stops at Salina Cruz on the route between Ham- 
burg and all west (Pacific) coast ports of South, Central and North 
America. 

Salvador Railway Company, operating a steamer regularly between 
Salina Cruz and Acajutla, Salvador, arranging to take passengers also 
for ports in Guatemala, Salvador and Honduras. 

Toyo Kisen Kaisha (Japan Steamship Company) operates a regular 
schedule between Yokohama, San Diego and San Francisco, Salina Cruz, 
and Valparaiso, Chile, Iquiqui, and Callao, Peru. 

Puerto Angel, a port open to both coasting and foreign trade, lies on 
a broad and open bay, north of Salina Cruz, but it does not play an active 
part in the commerce of Oaxaca. 

Puerto Menizo is a new Pacific port in the State recently opened to 
international commerce. 



276 MEXICO. 

PUEBLA. 

Puebla became a State of tlie l""cderation Octolier 4, 1S_'4, and its con- 
stitution was proniulgatcd Soptcnibcr 14, 18()1, and revised Febrrarv 5 
1880. 

Boundary, Area, Populatuni. — The State is bounded on the north and 
east by the State of Veracruz ; on the south by the States of Oa.xaca ana 
Guerrero; and on the west by the States of Morelos, Hidalgo and Tla.Kcala 
(although as a matter of fact Tla.xcala is almost surrounded by the State 
of Puebla). Its area is 31,616 square kilometers (12,204 square miles). 
Its population 0910) is 1,092,456, of whom 530.713 are males and 561,743 
are females. 

The general topographical aspect is mountainous, the principal peaks 
being Popocatepetl and IxtaccihuatI, the volcanoes of San Andres and 
Perote, and the mountain ranges of the Sierra Madre. 

The climate is in general temperate, but the conditions are sub-tropical 
in the southern and southwestern portions of tlie State, and cold in the 
nortliern districts. 

The chief rivers are the Atoyac, which flows through the State from 
north to south, passing near the State capital and joining the Mixteco 
in the south, forming one of the streams that make the Mezcala in the 
State of Guerrero ; the Pantepec, rising in the northern part of the State 
and flowing into Veracruz, where it joins the Vinasco to form the 
Tuxpan ; the Cazones or San Marcos, also flowing into Veracruz ; the 
Necaxa, in the upper reaches of which are the Falls of the same name, 
these Falls furnishing electric power for the total supply of the City of 
Mexico; the Tehuacan, called in Oaxaca the Quiotepec, and merging, i:i 
Veracruz, into the Papaloapam. There are four small lakes, the Quecho- 
lac, Tlachichica, Epatlan, and Tepehualco. Several mineral springs are 
utilized as popular resorts. 

Agriculture is the most important industry of the State. In the high- 
lands maize, wheat, barley and the maguey flourish, while lower down, 
in the valleys, sugar-cane, coffee, rice, tobacco, and fruits are cultivated. 
All the common vegetables grow in properly selected parts of the State. 
Cattle raising is carried on successfully on many estates. 

The principal minerals found are gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, zinc, 
mercury and rock salt; marble is quarried in places. Puebla is an agri- 
cultural rather than a mining State, but some areas are highly mineral- 
ized. The chief districts are Tezuitlan and Tlatlaquitepec, in the north- 
eastern part of the State, where a copper belt is worked, with some gold 
and silver; San Juan de los Llanos, a copper region, close to the northern 
border of Tlaxcala ; Tehuacan, in the southeastern portion of the State, 
where zinc deposits occur; Tecali, a short distance southeast of the city 
of Puebla, which district shows onyx marble. Coal deposits ZTt^ nu- 
merous in Puebla, but the country is very broken, so that as yet they 
cannot be economically worked. 

In addition to the industries connected with agriculture and mining, th-^ 
State of Puebla has developed such manufacturing interests that it ranks 
among the first in the Republic. The principal factories are for the manu- 
facture of cotton, and 35 of these, most of them in the city of Puebla, 
are in operation. Others are in Atlixco, Cholula, and nearby towns. The 
ancient industries of the pre-Columbian Indians have declined, but many 
good evidences of their early skill can still be discovered in the local 
shops and markets. The electric light and power station, at the Falls of 
Necaxa, is industrially one of the most important enterprises in the Re- 
public. All the power for the City of Mexico is transmitted from here 

The Mexican Railway has an important branch running from Apizaco 
(in Tlaxcala), on its main line, to the city of Puebla; this main line 
crosses the State, after leaving the Tlaxcalan boundary. The Interoceanic 



278 MEXICO. 

Railway (National Railways) has a branch running from Tehuacan to 
Espcranza, close to the southeastern boundary of the State, where con- 
nection is made with the Mexican Railway; the main line of the Tnter- 
oceanic crosses the State t)n its division between the National and the 
State capitals, and another line of the same railway passes from Tlaxcala 
toward the north ; another division enters the State from the soutli. The 
Mexican Southern (part of the Interoccanic Railway of the National 
Railways system) has its main line between Puelila and Oaxaca across tlu- 
State as far as San Antonio. 

The native Indian languages are Mexican, Otomi, Popoloco, Tepehua 
and Totonaco. 

The Stale is divided politically into 21 Districts, with 80 Municipalities, 
containing 15 cities, 35 towns, 582 villages, 403 organized estates, 1,647 
hamlets, and 1 colony. 

The Districts are: Puebla, Acatlan, Atlixco, Alatriste, Chalchicomula, 
Chiautla, Choluca, Huauchinango, Huejotzingo, Matamoros, San Juan de 
los Llanos, Tecali, Tecamacbalco, Tehuacan, Tepeaca, Tepaxi, l\'tela de 
Ocampo, Tezuitlan, Tlatlauquitepec, Z'acopoaxtla, Zacatlan. 

The City of Puebla, 208 kilometers (130 miles) from Mexico City, is 
the State capital, and the third city of importance in the Republic. Dur- 
ing the colonial period it was a trade center between Spain and Mexico, 
and the seat of many highly developed industries. Today it is the com- 
mercial and distributing center of this very large and rich agricultural 
State, and on account of the number and size of the cotton mills in its 
vicinit}^ it has been called the "Manchester of Mexico." Until recently 
progress had been limited by the exhaustion of the available power, but 
the electric supply has been increased considerably, so that notable in- 
dustrial expansion is to be expected. Puebla is also called the "Rome of 
Mexico." Its architecture is of decided merit, its situation is very favor- 
able, and it has the reputation of being one of the cleanest and healthiest 
cities m the Republic. Besides the cathedral and many churches, the city 
contains a State college with a fine library; and a medical school with 
courses in law, engineering and commerce connected with it; many schools 
of primary and advanced education; the renowned library (Lafragua), 
an academy of fine arts, and such instances of modern municipal life as 
a chamber of commerce, banks, several good hospitals, hotels and the- 
aters. Electric light, telephone and power service are in use, there is a 
system of tram-cars, and close communication with all parts b}' telegraph. 
Glass and other factories, in addition to the textiL? mills mentioned, are 
found in Puebla, and the tiles made here are in demand throughout 
Mexico for structural work. 

Atlixco, interesting historically and for its textile mills ; San Pedro 
Cholula, the location of a prehistoric pyramid ; and Tehuacan, famous for 
its mineral waters, are other towns in the State. 

QUERETARO. 

Queretaro became a State of the Federation January 8, 1824, and its 
constitution was promulgated January 18, 1869, and revised July 8, 1879. 

Boundmy, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the State of San Luis Potosi ; on the east by the States of Hidalgo ana 
Mexico ; on the south by the State of Michoacan ; md on the west by the 
State of .Guanajuato. Its area is 11,638 square kilometers (4,492 square 
miles). Its population (1910) is 243,515, of whom 120,784 are males and 
122,731 are females. 

Queretaro is crossed by mountain chains that unite the eastern and 
western ramifications of the Sierra Madre, the northern portion being 
mountainous, while the central and southern portions arc occupied by 
plains and valleys. 




Federal Palace, Citv up Queretaro. 



280 MEXRO. 

Climatic ciuuliliuns vary wilh iIk- ;illilu(U\ luii in <^i.'iKTal ilic climate 
is temperate, beiny hottest in the Jaliiani and Tulinian districts, tnward 
the north. Rainfall is moderate. 

The rivers are numerous, as the State is well watered, liut oidy the 
Ayutia, the Estorax and the Aloctezuma (the boundary between Quere- 
taro and Hidalgo) are of great intensity. The (Conca) Jalpan, Galinda 
and others are of less importance. There are several small lakes in the 
State, the principal being the Cerro Grande, Conca, Sancillo and Saledon. 
Many mineral and thermal springs are found throughout the country. 

The State of Queretaro occupies a very fertile region, producing all kinds 
of cereals, leguminous plants and fruits, so that agriculture is one of the 
principal industries. Cotton, sugar cane, and wheat are also cultivated, 
the latter being considered the best in the Republic. Tobacco is raised, 
and cattle growing is assuming important proportions. 

Minerals abound throughout the State ; the mines produce gold, silver, 
copper, lead, mercury, antimony, iron, either singly or in combination, and 
one district is famous for its opals. The principal mining camps are 
Cadereita, Mineral de los Aguas, and Toliman. Cadereita is an old mine 
working during colonial days, and has yielded an enormous revenue ; it 
lies to the east and north of the capital, about 70 kilometers (44 miles), 
and the output is silver, gold and some lead. Mineral de las Aguas, 
about 16 kilometers (10 miles) northeast of the latter, is of much the 
same character. Toliman, north of the capital, 70 kilometers (44 miles), 
has, besides the usual minerals, some nickel associated with antimony 
and iron. Opals are found in the southeastern part of the State, but the 
method of working these mines is not highly developed. 

Apart from the industries connected with agriculture and mining, the 
State has but few activities. In the capital are textile mills and local 
factories for the production of native articles. 

Both the Central and the National Railways (National Railways of 
Mexico) cross the State, paralleling each other for almost the entire dis- 
tance, in the southern portion ; in the north there are as yet no railway 
lines. 

Otomi and Tarasco are the Indian languages spoken. 

The State is divided politically into 6 Districts, with 18 Municipalities, 
contain 5 cities, 6 towns, 39 villages, 135 organized estates, and 412 
hamlets. 

The Districts are : Queretaro, Amealco, Cadereyta, Jalpan, San Juan 
del Rio, Toliman. 

The capital and chief city of the State is Queretaro, 269 kilometers (167 
miles) north of Mexico City, is one of the most important cities, both 
industrially and historically, in the Republic. Here the first plans for in- 
dependence were laid, and here were executed the Archduke Maximilian 
and his two chief generals, Miramon and Mejia, June 19, 1867. There 
are tram-cars, banks, telephones, and telegraphic communication with all 
the Republic. The principal buildings are the Federal Palace, the Govern- 
ment Palace (both of basalt), custom-house, cathedral, the historic 
"Tturbide" theater, a chamber of commerce and several hospitals. Many 
of the houses are very old, but the upper part of the town is more modern. 
Hercules, a short distance to the east of Queretaro, is noted as being the 
location of one of the largest textile mills in the country, with model 
workmen's homes. 

SAN LUIS POTOSI. 

San Luis Potosi became a State of the Federation January 8, 1824, and 
its constitution was promulgated in 1857. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the State of Coahuila; on the east by the States of Nuevo Leon and 
Tamaulipas and Veracruz ; on the south by the States of Hidalgo, Queretaro> 



282 M i:\uo. 

<uul Chianajuato : and mi the west by llie Stales of Jalisco and Zacatocas. 
Jts area is 62.177 s(|iiai-e kilometers {24,(X)() sc|iiare miles). Its population 
(1910) i^s 624.74S, .,t ■A-hom 308,301 are males and 316,447 are females. 

The State is traversed from north to south l)y the Sierra Madre range 
and is very mountainous, especially in the eastern portion. The central 
and western parts consist of the elevated tableland, which extends from 
north to south through that portion of the Me.xican Republic. The greater 
part of this tableland is exceedingly dry, but where water can be obtained 
for irrigation purposes the soil proves "to be fertile and productive. 

The climate is mild. It varies somewhat according to the elevation, cool 
weather occurring in the higher altitudes during the winter months, and 
warm weather prevailing at all seasons of the year in the lower ones. 

The chief rivers are the Santa Maria, the Tampaon, the Rio Verde and 
the Tamuin, which are tributaries of the Panuco, which empties into the 
Gulf at Tampico. The northern part of the State is lacking in rivers, and 
is therefore arid and dry. The State has numerous small lakes, but none 
of great significance; on the other hand the waterfalls are notable, espe- 
cially the Salta del Agua, near Hidalgo, in the southern part of the State, 
which offers a source of great power for some future industry. Mineral 
springs are numerous ; several are noted in the southwestern part of the 
State near Reyes and Santa Maria del Rio, and others are located in the 
extreme eastern part. Salt marshes are found in the arid regions of the 
north. 

Agriculture and stock raising are exceedingly varied. Where water is 
found or irrigation can be practiced, the land is very fertile, and in the 
eastern part of the State good crops of maize, beans, sugar cane, alfalfa, 
cereals, the maguey and even coffee, are grown. Stock raising is said by 
some to be the most important of farm industries, but, although breeds 
are constantly being improved, and thereby the cattle increased in value, 
goats are at present more abundant. The low tropical region known as 
Hucstaco Potosiiia is famous for its rich pasturage of Para grass, and if 
this alone be considered it is one of the chief stock raising regions in the 
Republic. Cattle from the tablelands of adjoining States can be here 
fattened to a substantial profit. 

The mineral wealth of the State is very great. In fact, for this reason 
it received the name "Potosi," as comparing it to the famous mines of 
Potosi in Bolivia, South America. Gold, silver, copper, lead, antimony, 
iron, manganese, mercury, zinc and sulphur, alone or in combination, are 
produced from many of the mines. The principal mining camps are San 
Pedro, Guadalcazar, Catorce, Matehuala, Santa Maria del Rio, Charcas 
and Ramos. 

San Pedro is situated 20 kilometers (12 miles) east of the city of San 
Luis Potosi, and has been worked since 1575. Gold and silver, with lead, 
and some copper, are the minerals obtained. Guadalcazar lies 160 kilo- 
meters (TOO miles) northeast of the capital, and produces silver, although 
at one time quicksilver was mined. Catorce, discovered in 1772, is north 
of the capital 110 kilometers (68 miles), chiefly silver in output. Mate- 
huala, somewhat east of Catorce, produces gold, silver and copper. Santa 
Maria del Rio is south of the capital, about 60 kilometers (37 miles), 
and is best known for its cinnabar. Charcas, 70 kilometers (43 miles) 
north of the capital, may be regarded as a copper, zinc and antimony 
camp, but, although vanadium is also found, there, the quantity is not 
large enough for conmiercial profit. Ramos, belonging to the Salinas 
district, is about the same distance (70 kilometers or 43 miles) north- 
west of the capital, and produces good quantities of silver and mercury. 

The National Railway (National Railways of Mexico) crosses the 
State from north to south, with branches to some of the mining camps; 
the Central (also National Railways of Mexico) crosses the State from 



284 Mi'-.XKo. 

west to cast uilli il> ili\i-iun IjcIwcl'II Ayiiascalientcs aiul Tainpico, liav- 
ing a branch from San Hartolo to Ciudad Fernandez; the Potosi and 
Rio Verde Railroad runs from the capital southeast 61 kilometers (38 
miles) to Ahuacatal. 

Chichimeca, ?luaxtcco, Mexicano, Otonii and Pamc are tlie Indian 
languages recognized. 

Tile State is divided i)iilitically into 13 Partidos, with 56 jNIunicipalilies, 
CLintaining 19 cities, ?i7 towns, 9 villages, 179 organized estates, 1,471 
hamlets and 1 colony. 

The Partidos are : San Luis Potosi, Catorce, Cerritos, Ciudad del 
Maiz, Ciudad de Valles, El Venado, Guadalcazar, Hidalgo, Rio Verde, 
Santa ]\laria del Rio. Salinas, Tamazunchale, and Tancanhuitz. 

The capital and chief city of the State of San Luis Potosi has the 
same name, and lies 526 kilometers (327 miles) north of Mexico City. 
It is well known for its cleanliness and healthy climate, and for its great 
commercial and industrial activity in factories, tanneries and mining in- 
terests. A flour mill, a nail factory, linen mill and a cold storage plant, 
tram-cars, telephones, electric lights, banks and railway facilities are ex- 
tensive. Situated equidistant from the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacilnc 
Ocean, it has always been a great distributing point for the north-central 
portion of Mexico. The city contains many large and handsome build- 
ings, among which are the Municipal Palace, the Government Palace, the 
La Paz theater, an art school besides the well-equipped public schools, a 
scientific institute and a cathedral. 

SINALOA. 

Sinaloa became a State of the Federation October 4, 1824, and its 
constitution was promulgated April 3, 1861. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north and 
northeast by the States of Sonora and Chihuahua ; on the east by the 
State of Durango ; on the south by the Territory of Tepic ; and on the 
west by the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California. Its area is 71,380 
square kilometers (27,553 square miles). Its population (1910) is 323,499, 
of whom 158,961 are males and 164,538 are females. 

The general topographical condition of the State is mountainous, the 
land rising gradually from the gulf coast to the Sierra Madre Moun- 
tains, which traverse Sinaloa north and south and constitute the prin- 
cipal range of the section. Others are the Sanabari Mountains, the 
Gacopira, Aguablanca, Cosala, Guadalupe de los Reyes, Tasajera, 
Navaschiste, Cuitaboa, and Tescalama. These systems embrace several 
peaks and plateaus. 

Climatically the State may be divided into two regions : The western, 
or hot belt, which is also the maritime section, devoted to agriculture, 
and the eastern, or cold belt, which is the mountainous district, devoted 
to mining. Rains are abundant on the coast, and in the mountains the 
precipitation is excessive, frost also being of frequent occurrence. Winds 
are variable, the northeastern predominating. 

Sinaloa is one of the best irrigated sections of the Republic, many of 
its rivers, such as the Fuerte and Sinaloa, being navigable. Nearly all the 
streams rise in the Sierra Madre and empty into the Gulf of California, 
the principal being the Fuerte, 670 kilometers in length (416 miles) ; the 
Sinaloa, 420 kilometers (216 miles) ; the Moscorite, 108 kilometers (67 
miles) ; the Culiacan, 252 kilometers (157 miles) ; the Quila, 156 kilo- 
meters {77 miles) ; the Elota, 221 kilometers (137 miles) ; the Piaxtle, 203 
kilometers (126 miles) ; the Presidio or Mazatlan, 167 kilometers (104 
miles) ; the Chametla or Rosario, 165 kilometers (103 miles) ; and the 
Canoas or Tclapan. 152 kilometers (95 miles). These rivers all have 



286 MEXICO, 

miniercnis trihutarii.s, and there arc in addition over 21)0 smaller streams 
traversing the State. There are no lakes, but several mineral springs 
exist. 

Sinaloa, productively, may be divided into a western or maritime region 
admirably adapted for all kinds of tropical and sub-tropical agriculture, 
and an interior highland region at present undeveloped except as regards 
its mining resources. Generally speaking the agricultural industry in the 
State is m a backward condition, through lack of transportation facili- 
ties, the chief products being maize, beans, tobacco, sugar cane, chick- 
peas, with some cotton, coffee and fruits. Henequen is cultivated, but 
only to a slight degree, although it would appear to have a great future 
in the State. There are large areas of forest, and many of the hard 
woods as well as the better known pines are of decided commercial 
value, but lack of railroad facilities retards their development. Some 
sttKk is raised, and good pasture exists. 

Mining is the principal industry of Sinaloa, and it is claimed that it is 
the richest region in Mexico. Gold, silver, copper, iron, and lead are the 
minerals produced. The best known mining camps are Fuerte, Sinaloa, 
Mocorito, Culiacan, Cosala, San Ignacio, Mazatlan, Concordia, and 
Rosario. 

Fuerte is in the extreme north of the State, about 250 kilometers (15S 
miles) from Culiacan, the capital. The veins are silver bearing, prin- 
cipally, and there are placer mines in the district, producing gold, and 
copper deposits are being opened up. Sinaloa, near the town of that 
name, 140 kilometers (87 miles) north of Culiacan, has gold bearing 
veins. jNIocorito, about 90 kilometers (56 miles) north of Culiacan, shows 
gold, silver and copper; south of the town of that name, near Pal- 
merito, about 50 kilometers (30 miles) north of Culiacan, has silver and 
lead ores. Culiacan district itself has mines rich in gold and silver. 
Cosala, 90 kilometers (56 miles) east of Culiacan, has some of the most 
famous mines of the State, with gold, silver and copper. San Ignacio, 
about 80 kilometers (50 miles) south of Cosala, the ores are principally 
gold. Mazatlan, in a district averaging 50 kilometers (30 miles) north- 
ward of the seaport of that name, has rich copper deposits. Concordia, 
the same distance to the west, has silver with some gold. Rosario, the 
most southern district of the State, has both gold- and silver. 

The sea coast of Sinaloa measures 510 kilometers (317 miles) and is 
well supplied with bays and natural harbors. There are three ports of 
entrj', named Mazatlan, Altata, and Topolobampo. Mazatlan is the chief 
port and the most important town of the State, containing a weather 
bureau, a custom house, a chamber of commerce, banks, good public 
buildings and a tram-car system. A good sewerage system has been 
installed, and harbor improvements are projected. It is the distributing 
center for a large interior area, and through it is carried an extensive 
foreign trade. Connection is made at Mazatlan with the Southern Pacific 
Railroad of Mexico. Steamer service for Mexican ports is supplied 
by the Compania Navicra del PaciUco, and to other Pacific ports by the 
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, the Canadian-Mexican Pacific Steam- 
ship Company, and the Kosmos Line. Altata is the port for the State 
capital Culiacan, but its harbor facilities are not well developed. A short 
railway runs from here to the interior. Topolobampo, in the north of the 
State, a splendid natural harbor, but still needing improvement, is the 
Pacific terminus of the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railroad now 
under construction. Local coasting steamers touch at both these latter 
ports. 

The Ferrocarril Occidental, between Culiacan and Altata, is 65 kilo- 
meters (39 miles). The Southern Pacific Railroad of Mexico crosses 
the State from northwest to southeast, connecting at Culiacan with the 



Tl 










288 



MEXICO. 



Jibovc railway, ami at San Bias touches the Kansas Cit}-, Mexico and 
Orient Railroad, which, when completed, will pass northeastward from 
Topolobampo through the State. 

Cahita and Mayo are the native languages recognized. 

The State is divided politically into 10 Districts, which are at the same 
time jMunicipalities, containing 6 cities, 9 towns, 86 villages, 68 organized 
estates, and 2,391 hamlets. 

The Districts and jMunicipalities are: Culiacan, Badiraguato, Concordia, 
Cosala, El Fuerte, Mazatlan, Mocorito, Rosario, San Ignacio, Sinaloa. 

The capital of the State, Culiacan (Resales), situated 1,478 kilometers 
(918 miles) from the City of Mexico, is an important commercial center 
with line public buildings, a cathedral, cotton mills and industrial estab- 
lishments for the local trade. 

SONORA. 

Sonora became a State of the Federation October 4, 1824, and its con- 
stitution was promulgated August 23, 1877. 

Boundary, Acra, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by the 
United States (Arizona and New Mexico) ; on the east by the State of 
Chihuahua ; on the south by the State of Sinaloa ; and on the west by the 
Gulf of California. Its area is 198,496 square kilometers (76,619 square 
miles), thus making it the second in size in the Republic. Its population 
(1910) is 262,545, of whom 135,346 are males and 127,199 are females. 

In the east Sonora is traversed by the Sierra Madre Mountains, from 
which extend various ramifications forming beautiful valleys, ravines, and 
canyons. The principal of these secondary chains are the Sierras Guada- 
lupe, San Luis, Batuco, Alamos, Antimez, Bacatete, and Prietas. The 
western portion is flat, and the largest valley is that of Guaymas. 

The climate varies according to the altitude, being cold in the moun- 
tains, temperate on the slopes and hot and dry near the coast and in the 
valleys. Rainfall is moderate, and frosts occur occasionally in some dis- 
tricts, more especially in the mountains. 

The principal rivers, all of which empty into the Gulf of California, 
are the Altar, also called Asuncion and San Ignacio, 358 kilometers (225 
miles) in length; the Yagui, 838 kilometers (521 miles); the Mayo, 
292 kilometers (182 miles) ; the Sonora, 410 kilometers (255 miles), and 
the Matope, 234 kilometers (145 miles). There are other streams of 
lesser importance, and a lake, called San Rafael. A few mineral springs 
are known, and used by the people. 

The principal agricultural products are cereals, tobacco, cotton, sugar- 
cane, fruits, especially oranges, of which quantities are shipped to the 
United States, and the soil is well adapted for both sub-tropical and tem- 
perate products, but lack of transportation, and in some cases of irriga- 
tion, has kept back large sections from their natural productivity. Stock 
raising makes only slight progress. The timber resources are great, and 
have been lately considerably exploited. 

Sonora is classed as one of the richest mineral regions of the Republic, 
or even of the world. The chief products are gold, silver, lead, copper, 
coal, antimony, mercury, iron, zinc, tellurium, salt and marbles. The 
chief districts are : Arispe, El Altar, Alamos, Hermosillo, Moctezuma, 
Ures, Sahuaripa and Cananea. 

Arispe, about 150 kilometers (93 miles) from Hermosillo, the capital of 
the State, toward the northeast, is one of the older districts in Sonora; 
it shows some gold. El Altar is in the extreme northwest of the State, 
with veins of native gold, gold and silver, or silver alone; about 80 kilo- 
meters (50 miles) west of El Altar are deposits showing antimony. 
Alamos, 80 kilometers (.50 miles) eastward, produces lead witli much cop- 



H 

n 




290 MEXICO. 

per. 1 k-rniosillo, not far irLun llio capital, shows silver with cupper in vary- 
ing proportions. Moctezuma, 180 kilometers (112 miles) from Hermosillo, 
is a rich copper deposit. Ures, about 80 kilometers (50 miles) northeast of 
the capital, has a silver-bearing vein. Sahuaripa, 120 kilometers (75 
miles) east of Ures, is the district where the coal deposits of the State 
are located. The best known of all the mines of Sonora are those near 
Cananea, where innnense copper deposits are developed. Cananea is 
situated 63 kilometers (39 miles) south of Naco on the United States 
boundary. 

The principal industries are those connected with agriculture and 
mining. There are, however, manufacturing establishments such as textile 
mills, soap and candle factories, and on the Gulf of California consider- 
able fishing and pearl gathering is carried on. 

The ports of entry of Sonora are Guaymas, on the Gulf of California, 
and Nogales, on the United States frontier. Guaymas is connected by 
rail with Hermosillo, the capital of the State, and with the west coast 
system of railways in the United States. The harbor is landlocked, but 
must be deepened to admit the largest ocean-going vessels. The com- 
panies serving Guaymas are the Compania Navicra del Paciflco, and the 
Canadian-Mexican Pacific Steamship Company for foreign trade. 

The Sonora Railway passes across the State between Guaymas and 
Nogales. The Cananea, Rio Yaqui and Pacific Railway enters Sonora 
from the frontier station of Naco. The Southern Pacific Railroad of Mex- 
ico passes southward from Guaymas into the State of Sinaloa, and has 
branches from the main line. 

Cahita, Cahuillo, Mayo, Opata, Papago, Pima and Yaqui are the native 
languages spoken among the Indians. 

The State is divided politicall}' into 9 Districts with 68 Municipalities, 
containing 5 cities, 9 towns, 82 villages, 235 organized estates, 939 hamlets 
and other recog-nized settlements. 

The Districts are : Hermosillo, Alamos, Altar, Arizpe, Guaymas, Mag- 
dalena, Moctezuma, Sahuaripa, Ures. 

The capital of the State is Hermosillo, and the headquarters of the 
northern military zone; it lies on the Sonora River and the Sonora 
Railway, 296 kilometers (184 miles) south of the United States border. 
The city has fine public buildings, banks, tram-cars, and telegraphic 
connections with all points. It is 2,527 kilometers (1,700 miles) from 
]\Iexico City. The public school system of this capital is of a very high 
grade. Nogales is the chief frontier port for goods from the United 
States. The great industry here is connected with the mines, but con- 
siderable manufacturing is done. 

TABASCO. 

Tabasco became a State of the Federation October 4, 1824, and its 
constitution was promulgated September 15, 1857. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the Gulf of Mexico and the State of Campeche ; on the east by the State 
of Campeche and the Republic of Guatemala; on the south by the State 
of Chiapas ; and the west by the State of Veracruz. Its area is 26,094 
square kilometers (10,072 square miles). Its population (1910) is 183,708. 
of whom 90,545 are males, and 93,254 are females. 

On the Gulf the coast line of the State e.xtends for 190 kilometers 
(118 miles), and is now and healthful, the natural depression of the soil 
forming several lakes. There are no capes, bays, or sheltered harbors 
along the coast, but vessels find anchorage in the mouths of the rivers, 
called bars, the principal of which are the San Pedro and San Pablo, 
formed by the river bearing that name at the boundary between Tabasca 



292 MKXico. 

and Campcchc ; the Tabasco, l-"routcra, ur i'riiicipal, formed by the 
Grijalva, giving access to the port of Frontera and the capital of the 
State: the Chiltcpec, which is the widest and deepest of all, formed by 
the Gonzalez River, and the, Tonala, formed by the river Tancochopa, 
the boundary between Tabasco and Veracruz. The surface of the State 
is generalh' a plain, slightly broken by hillocks and river beds, except 
toward the south and southeast, where a spur of the Sierra Madre rise^. 

The climate is hot, tempered, however, by the numerous streams. 
Rainfall is abundant. The thermometer ranges from 27° to 28° C. 
(80° to 82° F.) during the summer months, February to May; while 
during the winter months, December to January, when it is cooler, the 
range is from 17° to 18° C. (62° to 64° F.) 

Of all the States of Mexico, Tabasco possesses the best hydrographic 
system. Two large basins, the Usumacinta and the Grijalva, collect 
the innumerable streams. The Usumacinta River is formed by the 
junction of the Pasion and Salina rivers (both entering from Guatemalan 
territory), and is afterwards joined by the waters of the Chajill, Jatate, 
Lacantan, Cendales, and others. This river is 800 kilometers (about 500 
miles) in length, and navigable 300 kilometers (186 miles) from its 
mouth for good-sized steamers. The Grijalva River is formed by the 
confluence of the Mexcalapa and the Sierra, or Tacotalpa. The former 
rises in the State of Chiapas, and receives throughout its extent more 
than 30 streams, and is navigable for 125 kilometers (78 miles). The 
Tacotalpa also takes its source in Chiapas, and has numerous tributaries. 
The Grijalva proper commences with the junction of these two streams, 
and empties into the Gulf of Mexico, and is navigable from the Frontera 
bar as far as Las Palmas, a distance of 280 kilometers (174 miles). 
Other rivers are the Cuxcuchopa, navigable for 60 kilometers (37 miles), 
the Soledad, Coccohital, Tular, Tortuguero, and Tonala. As has been 
stated, the general character of the land being a plain, with little slope 
seaward, the rain waters form many lakes. The principal are Matillas, 
Chichicastre, Zapote, Viento, Palo Alto, Largartera, Veladero, Chimal, 
and Puerto Cabello. 

Tabasco is essentially an agricultural State. The soil is fertile, and 
the products are those characteristic of a hot and moist climate ; cacao, 
sugar-cane, coffee, tobacco, rubber, pepper, vanilla and maize are culti- 
vated, while the cabinet and dye woods are naturally abundant. Banana 
cultivation has assumed considerable importance in recent years ; chicle 
gum is exported on a large scale, but even then the resources of the 
State are only slightly developed. Lack of labor, ignorance of modern 
farming methods and difificult transportation impede progress ; the Federal 
and State Governments are taking steps to overcome these obstacles, and 
to open Tabasco to agricultural industry. 

Mining receives no attention, because no precious minerals have been 
found within the State, but there are indications of coal, asphaltum and 
cinnabar, and petroleum deposits have been worked through wells in the 
Sarlat and Macuspana districts. 

Frontera, the principal port of the State, is the natural gateway to the 
interior, and is situated on the Grijalva River, 106 kilometers (72 miles) 
below the State capital San Juan Bautista. The port is in regular com- 
munication with others in Mexico on the Gulf by the Compania Mcxicana 
de Navigacion; steamers from abroad make Frontera a port of call on 
many of their trips ; and with the interior river steamers maintain regular 
trafific on the Grijalva, Usumacinta and Palizada rivers. 

The only railways are local tram lines at Frontera and San Juan 
Bautista. 

The State is divided politically into 17 Municipalities (or Partidos) 
with 5 cities, 12 towns, 55 villages, 499 organized estates, and 1,033 hamlets. 



TABASCO TAMAULIPAS. 293 

The Municipalities are : San Juan Bautista, Balancan, Cardenas, Comal- 
calco, Cunduacan, Frontera, Huimanguillo, Jalapa, Jalpa, Jonuta, Macus- 
pana, Montecristo, Nacajuca, Paraiso, Tacotalpa, Teapa, Tenosique. 

The capital and chief city is San Juan Bautista, founded in 1598 and 
noted as the first spot on which Cortes set foot on Mexican soil. The 
city has tram-cars, fine public buildings, a cathedral, a theater, hospitals, 
and modern improvements. In this neighborhood begins the rubber 
country, which extends beyond the Guatemalan frontier. Some of the 
finest plantations of Mexico are in this State, with headquarters for the 
business in the capital. 

TAMAULIPAS. 

Tamaulipas became a State of the Federation October 4, 1824, and its 
constitution was promulgated December 8, 1857. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the United States (Texas) ; on the east by the Gulf of Mexico ; on the 
south by the States of Veracruz and San Luis Potosi ; and on the west 
by the State of Nuevo Leon. Its area is 83,597 square kilometers (32,268 
square miles) ; its population (1910) is 249,253, of whom 126,620 are 
males and 122,633 are females. 

Tamaulipas occupies one of the most beautiful sections of the Republic. 
Its coast line stretches from the bar of the Rio Bravo on the north to 
Tampico on the south, an extent of 400 kilometers (250 miles), being 
formed by a succession of sand banks. This part of the State is almost 
uninhabited, as with the exception of two or three unimportant villages. 
There are several bars, the principal being the Jesus Maria, at the 
junction of the Madre Lake and the Gulf of Mexico; the Tampico bar, 
the Soto de Marina bar, and the bar of the Rio Bravo. The prevailing 
winds on the Gulf coast are from east, northeast, and southeast, but in 
winter "northers" are frequent and dangerous. The southern and central 
portions of the State are mountainous, the northern part containing 
extensive fertile plains, adapted for stock raising. The principal moun- 
tain ranges are the Pamoranes, the San Carlos, and the Sierra Madre, 
which traverses the southwestern, western, and central portions, its prin- 
cipal peaks being Cerro Mocho and Cerro Shigiie. The most remarkable 
valley, by reason of its beauty and fertilitj^, is the Jaumave ; others are 
the Rusias and the Santa Barbara de Ocampo. 

The climate of Tamaulipas is generally hot and damp on the coast and 
in the vicinity of the lakes and rivers ; temperate on the slopes of Sierra 
Madre and in the vallej^s, and dry and temperate in the Lagrimas Valley. 
Rainfall is abundant in the sierras and moderate in the valleys, and 
throughout the district watered by the Rio Bravo frost is frequent. The 
highest temperature experienced in the State is from 32° to 33° C. 
(89° to 91° F.), and the lowest 15° to 24° C. (59° to 75° F.), the 
extremes being at noon and midnight. 

Tamaulipas has four large rivers which may be made navigable ; also 
several small lakes and many small streams. The Panuco and the Tuxpan 
rivers are described in Veracruz. The principal rivers are the Rio Bravo 
del Norte, the boundary line between Mexico and the United States, 
flowing from northwest to southeast, and emptying into the Gulf of 
Mexico ; the Conchas, also called the Presas ; the Soto de la Marina, 
navigable for 50 kilometers (31 miles) from its mouth, and the Guaj-alejo, 
with their respective tribvttaries. The most important lakes are on the 
Gulf coast, and are the Laguna Madre, 210 kilometers (130 miles) in 
length, containing several small islands ; the Pesquerias, or Morales, 34 
kilometers (21 miles) long, also containing small islands ; the Tordo, San 
Andres, Chairel, Champayan, and Carpintero. Mineral springs abound. 



294 MEXICO. 

Exteiuling from tlio Rio Grande to Tanipico the State of Taniaulipas 
is not only one of the largest, hut also one of the most favored, States 
of the Repuhlic. The undeveloped opportunities are encouraging coloniza- 
tion on an extensive scale, and to add still more to agricultural activity 
Government assistance has heen given to one of the most important 
irrigation enterprises in Mexico, in the northern part of the State, where 
a fertile area will be irrigated and a Spanish colony estal)lished. Between 
the coast and the Sierra Madre is a gently rolling stretch of land, west 
of Tampico, drained by the Panuco, Tamuin and Tamesi rivers, and 
in this district subdivision into small farms has been carried out, the 
lots being sold to practical farmers who will use modern scientific methods. 
The most profitable products grown in this area are sugar-cane, maize, 
bananas, citrus fruits, fibre plants, most kinds of vegetables, and even 
tobacco and coffee. Cattle raising is a good industry all over the State ; 
the cattle are, with few exceptions, native stock, and in proper season may 
be fattened further south in Veracruz. 

The mineral wealth of Tamaulipas is abundant, although it has not 
been developed as thoroughly as in other States. Gold, silver, copper, 
lead, sulphur, iron and zinc are found. The best known districts are 
Victoria, west of Cruz station, 278 kilometers (173 miles) from Tampico; 
lead and silver, with traces of gold, zinc in a few mines, and copper in 
others, are the chief yields. In San Jose, toward the north of Cruz, are 
copper mines. 

In addition to the agricultural and mineral industries, the State is 
well known on account of the fishing, which has for ages been one of the 
occupations of the Indian natives; shrimps are a specialty, but tarpon 
and other salt water fish can be caught. The petroleum output of 
Tamaulipas is also considerable, and some of the most extensive wells 
and refineries of the Republic are located near Tampico. In the larger 
cities of the State manufacturing has within recent years extended con- 
siderably. 

The State has two ports of entry, Tampico and Matamoros. Tampico 
is one of the most important ports in the Republic, ranking after Veracruz 
in east coast traffic. Situated six miles (about 10 kilometers) from the 
mouth of the Panuco River, it possesses several .fine public buildings, 
tram-cars, a chamber of commerce, and is modern 'in all ways. Vessels 
lie at the wharf at Tampico, a condition that greatly facilitates commerce. 
The Tampico-Tuxpam Canal, which starts from here, will be one of the 
great improvements in modern Mexico. This canal connects the lagoons 
along the coast for a length of 185 kilometers (115 miles), and is to 
have a depth of 6 feet (almost 2 meters) ; it opens a very fertile territory, 
especially at its southern extremity. The same steamship companies 
serving Veracruz make Tampico a port of call, also. Matamoros, on 
the Rio Grande, in the extreme northern part of the State, is connected 
with the Texas side of the river by an international bridge; it lies 50 
kilometers from the Gulf (31 miles) and therefore has no great marine 
traffic, but the commerce with the United States is of decided importance 
and is growing. 

The Mexican Central (National Railways of Mexico) crosses the State 
with its division between San Luis Potosi and Tampico. The Mexican 
National (National Railways of Mexico) has a division between Monte- 
rrey and Tampico, with branches, and another division between Monterrey 
and Matamoros. A project is well under way to connect Matamoros and 
Tampico by a direct line. 

The State is divided politically into 4 Districts with 37 Municipalities, 
containing 9 cities, 28 towns, 101 organized estates and 1474 hamlets. 

The Districts are: Centro, Norte, Sur, Cuarto. 

Ciudad Victoria, the chief town of the Central District and also the 



296 MEXICO. 

capital of the State, is 1,367 kilometers (849 miles) from the City of 
Mexico. Victoria has good public buildings, a chamber of commerce, 
tram-cars and other modern conveniences. It is noted for the ixtle fiber 
brought here for baling before transport to Tampico. 

TLAXCALA. 

Tlaxcala became a State of the Federation February 5, 1857, and its 
constitution was promulgated May 5, 1868. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north, east, 
south and southwest by the State of Puebla; on the west by the State of 
Mexico ; and on the northwest by the State of Hidalgo. It is in reality 
an enclave in the State of Puebla. Its Area is 4,132 square kilometers 
(1,595 square miles), and it is thus the smallest of the Mexican States. 
Its population (1910) is 183,805, of whom 91,500 are males and 92,305 
are females. 

There are offshoots of the Sierra Nevada in the State, and the chief 
eminence is the snow-capped and weird mountain of Malinche. Tlaxcala 
is within the cold regions of Mexico, and its valleyes, though sandy, are 
fertile. 

The climate is cold and healthful; rainfall is moderate throughout the 
year and frost is frequent during the year. 

The principal rivers are the Zahuapam, emptying into the Atoyac, which 
has other tributaries also. Three lakes, Acuitlaplico, Rosario and Xone- 
cuila are in the State, and the streams have water power available. 

Tlaxcala is essentially an agricultural State, cereals and the maguey 
(pulque) forming the chief products. Beans, peas, maize and chile are 
grown, and the wdieat crops, while yielding at a very high ratio, are 
celebrated also as direct descendants of the wheat first grown in the 
country, planted by accident along with rice grains introduced by Cortes. 
Cattle are raised in the valleys. 

The State has no importance as a mining region, though gold, silver, 
lead and copper have been found, and some coal reported. 

The chief manufacturing interests in the State are the cotton textile 
mills, a glass factory and foundries. 

The Mexican Railway crosses the State from northwest to southeast, 
and its branch from Apizaco to Puebla is partly within the borders. The 
town of Tlaxcala is reached by the Tlaxcala Railway from Santa Ana 
station. The Interoceanic Railway touches the State on the north. 

Mexicano and Otomi are the Indian languages spoken. 

The State is divided politically into 6 Districts with 35 Municipalities, 
containing 2 cities, 2 towns, 134 villages, 120 organized estates, and 219 
hamlets. 

The Districts are : Hidalgo, Cuauhtemoc, Ocampo, Juarez, Morelos, 
Zaragoza-Zacatelco. 

The capital and principal city of the State is Tlaxcala, famous his- 
torically both before and after the Conquest. It has many interesting 
buildings. It is in rail communication with Mexico City, the distance 
being 169 kilometers (105 miles). 

VERACRUZ. 

Veracruz became a State of the Federation January 8, 1824, and its 
constitution was promulgated November 18, 1857, but was revised 
February 13, 1871, and again on October 10, 1873. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State is bounded on the north by 
the State of Tamaulipas ; on the east by the Gulf of Mexico ; on the 
southeast by the States of Tabasco and Chiapas ; on the south by the 



VERACRUZ. 297 

State of Oaxaca; and on the west by the States of Puebia, Hidalgo and 
San Luis Potosi. Its area is 75.863 square kilometers (29,283 square 
miles). Its population (1910) is 1,124,368, of whom 565,830 are males and 
558,538 are females. 

Veracruz occupies a narrow strip of land rising gradually from 
the coast line to the crest of the Sierra Madre Mountains. Almost the 
entire section is mountainous, the Sierra Madre range occupying the 
western central portion, running from north to south, and rising to the 
greatest height in the peak of Nanchampapetl, or Cofre de Perote. To 
the south is the majestic snow-capped volcano Citatepetl, or Orizaba. 
Other ranges are the Maltrata, Alcucingo, Jalacingo, Oxocupan, and 
Zongolica. The eastern littoral, bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, is 460 
kilometers (286 miles) in extent, stretching from the Tampico Bar to 
Tonala. The northern section of this coast line is called the Windward 
coast, while to the south, from Veracruz to the bar of Tonala, is the 
Leeward coast. The shore line is broken by numerous bars, shoals, 
islands, and capes. 

The climate is cool and agreeable in the uplands, but hot and moist in 
the lowlands and along the coast. The State possesses a great variety 
of climates, depending largely upon the altitude. 

Hydrographically the State may be divided into two basins, the northern 
extending from the Panuco River to the Rio Blanco and the southern 
from the latter stream southward to Tanciochapa, the border between Vera- 
cruzand Tabasco. The rivers susceptible of navigable developmeot are the 
Panuco, Tuxpam, Yautepec, Tecolutla, Nautla, Blanco, and Papaloapam, 
all having several tributaries and forming the hydrographic basins above 
mentioned. There are also several lakes, among them the Catemaco, 
Ostion, Mexcalapa, Tortuguero, and Tecuanapa. 

The Panuco River, at the mouth of which is the city and port of 
Tampico (State of Tamaulipas), is a stream of some importance, navi- 
gable inland for considerables distances, but varying according to the 
season. A canal connecting the Panuco and the Tuxpam River, through 
the intervening system of lagoons, is intended to furnish interior com- 
rnunication between the ports of Tuxpam and Tampico. Steamer naviga- 
tion on the Panuco is developing into considerable magnitude. The 
Coatzacoalcos River, at the mouth of which is the northern extremity 
of the Tehuantepec Railway, was early investigated by Cortes; the town 
of the same name is now officially called Puerto Mexico. The stream 
Itself is broad and deep, the bar at its mouth having been successfully 
deepened for ocean steamers ; it is navigable for over 40 kilometers (about 
25 miles) for large vessels, and for greater distances on its tributaries 
for smaller ones. 

In many of the rivers descending from the mountains water power is 
available. Mineral springs abound in parts of the State. 

Of all the States of Mexico, Veracruz produces by far the greatest 
value in agricultural output. Some of the finest tobacco of the RepubHc 
is grown in Veracruz, rivaling the Cuban in flavor. It is estimated that 
more than half the total crop of Mexico is raised in the State of Veracruz, 
but the actual amount is hard to determine, as the planters are reluctant 
to disclose the area of land under cultivation. The State is a large 
grower of sugar-cane, and refine quantities of it into a good- brand of 
sugar. From the coast up to an altitude reaching to the tierra templada 
excellent conditions for fruit culture prevail, and considerable fruit is 
grown, but as yet no serious attempt has been made to develop the 
mdustry systematically. The cereals are cultivated in all parts. Unfor- 
tunately the breeding and fattening of cattle has not received the careful 
attention the industry merits, for Veracruz ofifers a splendid field for this 
activity. In comparison with results obtained in the interior, this State 




> 



Ph 



Ph 



VERACRUZ. 



299 



should make a favorable showing, yet it is only recently that farmers 
have turned attention to the advantages of the country. In the lower 
lying lands the forests produce the better-known cabinet woods such as 
mahogany, Spanish cedar, and rosewood, and there are many other hard- 
woods in addition. The largest quantities of timber are found on the 
Gulf of Mexico side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. An extensive area 
of the zapupe plant is under cultivation in the Tuxpam district. This 
riber is stated to be equal to the henequen fiber of Yucatan. 

Many mines are included within the State of Veracruz, the metals 
known being gold, silver, lead, mercury, copper, iron and mercury; _na 
great development has taken place, however, and the future of the mining 
industry is still undetermined. 

The industries of the State are largely those connected with agriculture, 
but there are many manufacturing interests, as the country is well settled 
and is in many respects the oldest in Mexico. The largest cotton mill 
in the Republic is situated in Orizaba, which city is really the most 
important industrial center of the Republic; jute mills also are located 
here. In the other cities are factories of chocolate, matches, soap, candles 
and cigars. 

Large areas of petroliferous lands are found in both: the northern and 
southern portions of the State; near Tuxpam are wells in production, and 
at Minatatlan, on the Coatzacoalcos River, are other wells, with refineries 

for the oil. , -n 

The ports of the State of Veracruz are Veracruz, Tuxpam, and Puerto 
Mexico (Coatzacoalcos) for international traffic, and Alvarado with 
minor harbors for coastwise service. The City of Veracruz is the premier 
port of the Republic, and the natural gateway of the country through 
which passes more than one-half of the foreign maritime trade, and 
approximately a quarter of the total imports and exports. Accommo- 
dation for vessels of all sizes is offered, so that they can approach to 
modern docks, equipped with every convenience for expeditious loading 
and unloading; transfer is made direct to freight cars alongside the piers, 
so that foreign commerce is facilitated according to the best of international 
standards. Veracruz is to-day thoroughly modern ; it has electric tram- 
cars, telephones, lights, good drainage and water supply, by which _ the 
earlier terror of yellow fever is entirely removed; fine public buildings 
both old and new, a theater, a public (the People's) library, and an 
artillery school. 

The steamship lines serving the port are: Royal Mail Steam Packet 
Company, from England and Belgium; Harrison Line, and Lejdand Line, 
from England; Cuban Steamship Compan}^ from England and New 
Orleans ; Hamburg-American Line, from Germany ; Compagnie Generale 
Transatlantique, from France ; Compaiiia Trasatlantica, from Spain ; Elder 
Dempster & Co. (Canadian Line), from Canada; Norway-Mexico Gulf 
Line, from Norway; Danish Royal Mail Line, from Denmark and Ger- 
many; New York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company, from New York 
(Ward Line) ; Wolvin Line, from Texas City and Galveston; Compania 
Mexicana de Navegacion, for coastwise service. Steamers on these lines 
make regular schedules, and most of them stop at intermediate ports m 
Cuba, the West Indies and even in Europe; they connect with steamers for 
other' parts in the world, either in New York or in their home ports. 
There has recently been established a line of through steamers for both 
freight and passengers between Veracruz and Buenos A.ires, Argentina, 
but its schedule has not- yet become regularly in operation. 

Tuxpam lies 208 kilometers (129 miles) northwest of Veracruz, and 
8 kilometers (5 miles) above the mouth of the Tuxpam River. The 
depth of water over the bar is insufficient for large vessels, so that the 
shipping from here is restricted, but with the growing petroleum industry 



VERACRUZ YUCATAN. 301 

in the neighborhood, the port will in all probability be opened to a greater 
trade by the Government. This Tuxpam must not be confused with a 
town of the same name (sometimes spelled with n instead of m, in the 
State of Colima). 

Puerto Mexico, originally called Coatzacoalcos and at the mouth of the 
river of that name, has become one of the busiest shipping centers of the 
Republic since the opening of the Tehuantepec National Railway, of which 
it is the northern (Atlantic) terminus. The natural harbor is of great 
capacity, and the bar has been deepened for heavy draught steamers ; the 
port works are first class. Many of the same steamship lines serve this 
port as call at Veracruz and Tampico. In addition the steamers of the 
American-Hawaiian Line make this port regularly in their traffic between 
the Hawaiian Islands and the west coast of the United States. 

The Mexican Railway crosses the State with its main line between 
Veracruz City and Mexico City. The Interoceanic Railway (National 
Railways of Mexico) passes through the State, touching at Jalapa, the 
capital. The Veracruz and Isthmus Railway (National Railways of 
Mexico) has its main line from Veracruz to its junction with the Tehuan- 
tepec National Railway. The Tehuantepec National Railway is within 
the State except for a portion of its southern end, which is in the State 
of Oaxaca. The Veracruz (Mexico) Railway runs south in the State to 
Alvarado, and its steamers carry on a commerce along the interior lagoons 
to connect finally with a branch of the Tehuantepec National Railway at 
San Juan Evangelista. 

The Chinanteco, Mazateco, Mixteco, Otomi, Popoloco, Tepehua, and 
Zapoteca are the Indian languages recognized. 

The State is divided polticaly into 18 Cantons, with 180 Municipalities, 
containing 13 cities, 32 towns, 137 villages, 455 organized estates, and 6,011 
hamlets. 

The Cantons are : Veracruz, Acayucan, Coatepec, Cordoba, Cosamalo- 
apan, Chicontepec, Huatusco, Jalacingo, Los Tuxtlas, Minatitlan, Misantla, 
Orizaba, Ozuluama, Papantla, Tantoyuca, Jalapa, Tuxpan, Zongolica. 

Jalapa (sometimes spelled Xalapa) is the capital of the State of Vera- 
cruz, situated 310 kilometers (193 miles) from the City of Mexico. It is 
often called the garden spot of the Republic, and was much beloved by the 
early Spanish settlers, because its altitude gave immunity from the dreaded 
fevers of the coast. The wonderful scenery in the neighborhood, and the 
interesting ruins of prehistoric inhabitants, make the city attractive for 
travelers. There are good public buildings, both old and new. The city 
has now electric lights, tram-cars, telephones, and is the center of develop- 
ing manufacturing activties. 

Orizaba and Cordoba are celebrated cities in the State, and, apart from 
their historic and scenic attractions, deserve the attention of the traveler, 
student and business man. 

YUCATAN. 

Yucatan became a State of the Federation October 4, 1824, and its 
constitution was promulgated April 19, 1857, and revised January 21, 1870. 

Boundary, Area, Population. — The State of Yucatan, since "the segre- 
gation of the Territory of Quintana Roo, occupies the northwestern 
portion of the Peninsula to which it gives its name ; it is bounded on the 
north by the Gulf of Mexico ; on the east and south by the Territory of 
Quintana Roo ; on the southwest by the State of Campeche, and on the 
west by the State of Campeche and the Gulf of Mexico. Its area is 
48,097 square kilometers (18,565 square miles). Its population (1910) 
is 337,020, of whom 166,713 are males and 170,307 are females. 

The peninsula of Yucatan is an immense plain, which, starting from 



302 



MEXICO. 



the coast line, rises gradually toward the interior to a luij^lit of about 
60 meters (200 feet). In the northwest, where Merida is located, the soil 
is of a calcareous, dry, and rocky formation, and until the culture of 
hcnequen transformed it into one of the richest regions of Mexico it was 
proverbially sterile. The fertility of the land increases toward the north- 
east, while the southeast section offers great natural opportunities for 
wealth, abounding as it does in virgin forests filled with valuable dye and 
cabinet woods and in stretches of land suitable for the culture of all the 
vegetable species. 

There are no rivers, and all drinking water is obtained from natural 
wells sunk to a greater or less depth. The so-called Lagartos River is 
in reality a shallow arm of the sea, and is remarkable for the fact that 
at a distance of about 400 meters (1,300 feet) inland pools of fresh water 
spring up amid the salt. These are called "Bocas de Conil," and are 
supposed liy Ihuiiboldt to be due to immense hydrostatic pressure from 




Municipal Building, Poet of Progreso, State of Yucatan. 



the interior of the earth. Such springs are also found on the Windward 
coast. Throughout the State are many springs called locally sarfencjas,. 
agtiadas, and cenotes, the first being deposits of rain water among the 
rocks ; the second large reservoir-like pools, some of them having been 
constructed by the ancient inhabitants, and the third beautiful caverns 
where water is found in immense quantities. The only lake is the 
Chichankanab, southeast of Merida, about Z2 kilometers (20 miles) dis- 
tance from Peto (in Quintana Roo), the peculiar characteristic of which 
is that the waters, though beautifully clear, are very bitter, and that the 
bed is composed of crystals closely resembling Epsom salts. Almost the 
entire coast is paralleled b}' narrow lagoons, forming islands between 
them and the sea. 



YUCATAN. 303 



The climate is generally pleasant, the maximum temperature in summer 
being 32° C. (89° F.) and the minimum in winter 19° C. (66° F.), the 
summer heat being tempered by cool breezes. 

The principal sources of agricultural wealth consist in the cultivation 
of henequen, but in the northwest are sugar plantations, while in the 
northeast and other portions of the State are forest regions, where dye 
and cabinet woods, chicle gum, tobacco and vanilla are gathered and 
cultivated. 

Yucatan is not a mineral State, but there is abundance of marble, some 
coal, and the salt deposits are of commercial value to this section of the 
Republic. 

The great industry of the State is that connected with the planting and 
utilization of henequen, which is prepared in its crude form, as ropes 
and bags, other more finished articles, and even in the beautiful hammocks 
for which Yucatan is celebrated. 

Frogreso is the only port having a regular foreign commerce, and it 
is the distributing center for the imports and exports of the State. The 
approach is difficult on account of the shoals, so that anchorage is satis- 
factory only at a distance from shore ; goods are then lightered, some- 
times four miles (6-8 kilometers). Frogreso has close and frequent rail 
communication with the interior and especially with Merida, the capital, 
as well as with Campeche, the capital of that State. 

Steamship companies serving the port of Frogreso are : The New York 
and Cuba Mail Steamship Company (Ward Line), to Habana and New 
York, with stops also at Veracruz and Tampico; Compagnie Generale 
Transatlantique, to France ; The Harrison Line, the Leyland Line, to 
England, through New Orleans or Galveston; Elder, Dempster & Co. 
(Canadian Line), to Canada; Hamburg-American Line, for Germany and 
intermediate ports. 

The old port of Sisal, west of Frogreso, is noted as the place giving 
its name to the henequen product called sisal hemp in commercial usage. 

The railways in the State of Yucatan and those in the State of Cam- 
peche are treated together under the United Railways of Yucatan. The 
system is extensive and reaches the best known agricultural sections of 
the country, and carries the traveler into regions marked by the pre- 
historic remains of the Maya settlers. It is the intention of the Govern- 
ment to unite this system, as soon as construction can be completed, 
by rail with the interior of the Republic, the only existing gap being that 
between Campeche and a point on the Tehuantepec National Railway in 
the State of Veracruz. 

Maya is the native language used even to-day in all parts of the State. 

The State is divided politically into 16 Fartidos, with 82 Municipali- 
ties, containing 7 cities, 15 towns, 155 villages, 52 organized estates, and 
l,ni hamlets. 

The Fartidos are : Merida, Espita, Acanceh, Izamal, Hunucma, Max- 
canu, Motul, Feto, Frogreso, Sotuta, Tekax, Temax, Ticul, Tixkokob, 
Tizimin, Valladolid. 

Merida is the capital and the chief city in Yucatan. It was originally 
a large settlement of the Maya Indians, and was discovered and con- 
quered by the Spaniards shortly after Cortes invaded Mexico. It has 
been completely rebuilt, however, and to-day is modern in all respects, 
with tram-cars, electric lights, telephones, fine public buildings, banks, a 
board of trade, a theater, an excellent museum, good schools, and exten- 
sive parks. 

Throughout Yucatan are traces of the ancient Maya civilization, and 
some of the most enduring monuments of America are in this State. The 
native population is composed largely of descendants of these Mayas, 
and preserve not a few of their earlier characteristics. 



ZACATECAS. 305 

ZACATECAS. 

Zacatecas became a State of the Federation October 4 1824 and its 
constitution was promulgated November 5, 1857. 

Boundary, Area, Population.— The State is bounded on the north by 
the States of Coahuila and Durango; on the east by the State of San 
1.U1S Potosi; on the south by the States of Aguascalientes and Jalisco- 
on the west by the State of Jalisco; and on the northwest by the State of 
Durango. Its area is 63,386 square kilometers (24,467 square miles) Its 
popuation (1910) is 475,863, of whom 235,715 are males and 240148 are 
females. 

Situated on the high, central plateau of the Republic, this State is one 
ot the_ most mountainous regions of the country, and is formed by the 
extension of the Sierra Madre range. 

The climate of a large part of the territory is cold, and only in the 
occasional valleys is there shelter from the winds and a warmer air that 
allows the cultivation of products of the soil or of the pasture Rainfall 
IS abundant. 

None of the rivers of the State are of importance, but the principal 
Streams are the Juchipila and the Nieves, each about 225 kilometers (140 
miles) long; they have small tributaries. There are no large lakes but 
pools of clear, cold water and mineral springs abound. 

Z'acatecas can not be classed among the important agricultural sections 
ot iVlexico, but cereals, sugar-cane in the lowest areas, and maguey are 
cultivated. Stock raising is profitable, the cattle being well known both 
on account of flesh, and of the wool from the sheep. 

From a mineral standpoint this State is one of the richest regions in 
the world, as it contains the Sierra de Zacatecas which has produced 
fabulous quantities of silver. Other minerals found in greater or less 
quantities are gold, mercury, iron, copper, zinc, lead and bismuth, with 
salt. Ihe chief camps, all of which are historical, are: Zacatecas in and 
about the capital of the State, where silver and a small amount of gold 
are found; Veta Grande, four miles (7 kilometers) north of the capital, 
IS chiefly silver; south of the city there is a group of veins distinctly 
gold bearing. Fresnillo, 40 miles (about 70 kilometers) northwest of the 
capital shows also silver chiefly. Sombrerete, about SO miles (80 kilo- 
nieters) northwest of Fresnillo, produces high-grade silver ore. Chal- 
chihuites, 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Sombrerete, has silver 
with some gold. Aranzazu, formerly known as Mazapil, in the extreme 
"?^th ,9/ the State, has gold, silver, lead and copper. Bolanos. 68 miles 
(IIU kilometers) southwest of the capital, has silver. Juchipila at the 
^/T^cTm '°"*^ ?^ ^^'^ ^^^^^' ^' ^^*er gold producing. Pinos, 90 miles 
(145 kilometers) southeast of the capital, shows largely gold, with some 

The industries are almost altogether those connected with mining or 
stock raising,_ but m the city of Zacatecas itself considerable manufac- 
turing is carried on, for local markets, and the sarapes made here have a 
reputation for excellence throughout the country. 

_ The Mexican Central (National Railways of Mexico) crosses the State 
in Its main line between the City of Mexico and the northern frontier • 
It IS mterestmg to note that at Fresnillo, in 1884, the junction took place 
of the construction from the north and of that from the south, uniting 
the United States and Mexico by a railway; it was of interest, too, that 
this was the first line in the world to be built across the Tropic of Cancer 
which hes only a short distance to the north of Fresnillo. There is a 
branch of this railway from the capital to Ojocaliente, to the southwest. 
Ihe mam line of the division between Aguascalientes and Tampico passes 
through the State. There are many small mining roads. 

Huichol is the Indian language recognized. 




H c 



LOWER CALIFORNIA. 307 

The State is divided politically into 12 Partidos with 52 Municipalities, 
containing 12 cities, 12 towns, 40 villages, 138 organized estates, and 1,626 
hamlets. 

The Partidos are : Zacatecas, Fresnillo, Jerez, Juchipila, Mazapil, Nieves, 
Nochixtlan, Ojo Caliente, Pinos, Sombrerete, Tlaltenango, Villanuena. 

Zacatecas is the capital and chief city of the State of that name. It 
has been and is yet one of the best known cities of the Republic, and is 
situated 706 kilometers (439 miles) from the City of Mexico. The city 
is rich in historical incidents, of times both before and after the conquest, 
and in the neighborhood are prehistoric ruins comparable to those much 
further south. It is equipped with many modern conveniences, fine public 
buildings, a mint, a large library and numerous churches, with a cathedral. 

TERRITORY OF LOWER CALIFORNIA. 
(BAJA CALIFORNIA.) 

The Territory of Lower (Baja) California became such by a Decree 
of the Congress of the Union. 

Boundary, Area, Population.— The Territory is bounded on the north 
by the United States (California) ; on the east by the Colorado River 
and the Gulf of California; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. 
Its area is 151,109 square kilometers (58,328 square miles). Its population 
(1910) is, according to the two subdivisions, in the North 9,905, of 
whom 6,058 are males and 3,847 females; in the South, 42,339, of whom 
21,859 are males and 20,480 are females, a total of 52,244. 

The coast line measures 3,000 kilometers (1,864 miles) bordered by a 
number of islands. The principal bays, where the ports open to foreign 
commerce are found, are La Paz and Santa Rosalia on the Gulf of 
California, and Ensenada Bay on the Pacific. Others worthy of note are 
San Quintin, San Sebastian, Vizcaino, San Pablo, San Roque, Asuncion, 
Magdalena, Ballenas, Pequena, and Almejas on the western or Pacific 
side, while on the gulf or eastern coast are San Felipe, San Luis, Reme- 
dios, Angeles, Animas, San Carlos, Concepi6n, San Nicolas, San Basilio, 
Ventana, Muertos, Palmas, and San Jose. The large islands also have 
their ports and bays, as follows : Angel de la Guarda Island contains the 
port of Refugio and Humbug Bay; Carmen Island, ports Lobos and 
Balandra and the bays of Salinas and Gavilanes, and San Jose Island 
the Bay of Amortajada, and Cedros Island the Bay del Sur. Other 
islands on the Pacific coast belonging to the Republic are Guadalupe, 
which is extremely fertile and rich in cattle; Todos Santos, San Martin, 
San Ger6nimo, Sacramento (a reef), EHde, Cedros, Natividad, San 
Benito, Asuncion, and the large islands of Magdalena, Santa Margarita, 
and Crecientes. On the gulf side are ^Montague and Gore at the mouth 
of the Colorado River, Gonzaga (a reef), the San Luis Islands, the large 
island of Angel de la Guarda, the Mejia Islands, San Marcos, Carmen, 
Santa Catalina, San Jose, Espiritu Santo, Cerralbo, and several others. 
The peninsula is traversed from end to end by a cordillera running 
nearer the eastern than the western coast, the descent on the gulf side 
being extremely abrupt, while on the Pacific side the coast is reached 
by a succession of low hills. This mountain chain possesses remarkable 
topographical and geological features, in some places granite, occasionally 
metalliferous, forming the central portions. Another differential charac- 
teristic between the mountains of Upper and Lower California are the 
rocks of volcanic origin which occupy a large extent of the territory, 
giving the country a marked aspect of aridity and desolation, this being 
especially noticeable in the northern part of the territory, which is 
occupied by the Cupapas chain and the Volcano de las Virgenes. The 
highest granite peak is the Cerro del Gigante, near Loreto, on the gulf 



LOWER CALIFORNIA. 



309 



coast, the altitude of which is estimated at 1,300 meters (4,265 feet)' 
above sea level. 

The climate is hot and dry in the north, and more temperate toward' 
the south, but in general it is tropical. 

Water is lacking, as a rule, throughout the Territory; the Colorado 
River is the only stream of importance. 

Lack of irrigation and scarcity of rainfall are the causes of the gen- 
eral sterility of the soil and the consequent limitations of agricultural 
development. Notwithstanding this, however, there are in_ some portions 
of the peninsula spontaneous productions of the soil which yield large 
profits. Principal among these is the archil, or Spanish moss, used for 
dyeing purposes, which grows profusely throughout an extensive belt 
between 23° 22' and 26° 24' north latitude on the west coast. It is not 
found on the eastern or gulf side, but its growth begins again, though to 
a limited extent, on the coasts. Sugar cane and tropical fruits are suc- 
cessfully cultivated in the humid sections, and the grape also receives 
some attention. Maize and tobacco grow readily, and there are many 
cattle ranges in parts of the country, all going largely to supply local 
needs. 

The mineral resources of the Territory are important, the principal 
mining centers being as follows: San Antonio, in the south, producing 
silver, native sulphur and some gold. Virgenes, about 20 miles (32 
kilometers) east of La Paz, has silver and some gold. Cacachilas has 
silver and gold. Isla de San Jose has copper, silver and gold. Isla de 
Carmen has copper and extensive deposits of salt. Santa Rosalia has 
large copper mines. Mulege has manganese ores, with copper, lead and 
silver. Among the minerals declared are gold, silver, copper, lead, sulphur,, 
iron, and manganese, with garnet and tourmaline, opals and turquoises. 

Except for local activities, the most developed industry is the pearl 
fishery, which has an extensive plant on the Gulf of California. Here 
the attempt is made to grow oysters systematically and to breed mother- 
of-pearl oysters artifii.i-.illy. 

The ports open to foreign commerce are Ensenada, La Paz, Santa 
Rosalia and Magdalen i Bay. Ensenada, on All Saints' Bay, only a short 
distance south of the Jnited States border, is the capital of the northern 
district of the Teritory, and has only a moderate commerce. La Paz, 
on the Gulf of California, is the capital of the southern district. Santa 
Rosalia is on the west shore of the Gulf of California, opposite Guaymas 
(State of Sonora), and is an active center of commerce. These two 
ports are served regularly by the Compania Naviera del PaciUco, a na- 
tional coastwise company plying on the west coast of the Republic. 
Magdalena Bay has recently been made a port of entry. 

A few miles of railway have been built for the mining enterprises of 
the Territory, and the Southern Pacific Railway has a division entering 
the Territory and cutting across it to the Colorado River at the loca- 
tion of the international dam. 

Cahuillo, Cucapa and Yuma are the Indian languages recognized. 

The Territory is divided politically into 2 Districts with 8 Municipali- 
ties, containing 2 cities, 1 town, 14 villages, 15 organized estates and 630 
hamlets. 

The Districts are South and North. 

The Municipalities are: La Paz, Comandu, Mulege, San Antonio, 
San Jose del Cabo, Santiago, and Todos Santos, of the South; and 
Ensenada, of the North. Each District is governed by a Jefe Politico, 
appointed by the Federal Government. 

The capital of the southern district is La Paz, that of the northern 
district is Ensenada. In the northern district is the frontier town of 
Mexicali, opposite the (Upper) California town of Calixo. 



310 MEXICO. 

TERRITORY OF TEPIC. 

The Tcrritorj- of Topic, at one time a Canton of the State of Jalisco, 
was made a Federal Territorv bv decree of the Congress of the Union, 
December 12, 1884. 

Boundary. Area, Fof'ulatiox. — The Territory is bounded on the north 
by the States of Durango and Sinaloa; on the east and south by the State 
of Jalisco ; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Its area is 28,371 
square kilometers (10,951 square miles). Its population (1910) is 171,837, 
of whom 88,812 are males and 83,025 are females. 

The Sierra Madre range traverses the Territory from southeast to 
northeast. The eastern portion of Tepic is exceedingly mountainous. 
Precipitous cliflfs and deep barrancas (cafions) occur with great fre- 
quency. At the bottom of some of these are rapid mountain streams, 
many of which empty into Santiago River. The western part of the 
Territory is level, and is crossed by numerous small rivers and creeks. 
These streams overflow during the rainy season and flood the plains 
through which they pass, enriching the soil and rendering it wonderfully 
fertile and productive. In the southern part of the Territory, in the dis- 
trict of Ahuacatlan, the country is almost entireh' of volcanic origin. In 
this part of Tepic is found the celebrated volcano Ceboruc. In 1870 this 
volcano was in a state of great activity, and threw out immense quan- 
tities of lava and ashes. Not far from Ceboruc is the celebrated 
Sangangiiey Peak, which rises to a height of 2,000 meters (6,561 feet) 
above the level of the sea. 

The climate of the lowlands is hot, while that of the higher regions 
is temperate and agreeable, some of the high mountain table lands and 
slopes being cold. 

The principal river that runs through the Territory is the Lerma, or 
Santiago, which originates in the tributaries that flow into Lake Chapala, 
in the State of Jalisco. This important river empties into the Pacific 
Ocean just to the north of the port of San Bias. Many smaller streams 
are found in the Territory, a number of which could easily be used for 
irrigating the fertile valleys through which they pass. The Acaponeta, 
rising in the mountains in the north of the Territor}^, empties, after a 
course of about 130 kilometers (81 miles), into the Pacific Ocean at the 
Boca de Teacapan. The San Pedro, rising not far from the same place 
as the Acaponeta, flows in a more southerly direction and empties into 
the lagoon of Mexcaltitlan, an inlet of the Pacific north of the mouth of 
the Santiago. There are a few small lakes in the interior, and the 
shore is indented with lagoons connected with the Pacific Ocean. The 
coast line of the Territory measures 500 kilometers (311 miles). 

The agricultural productions of the Territory are numerous and abun- 
dant. They are similar in variety and number to the productions of the 
famous agricultural States of Veracruz, Puebla, and Oaxaca. The valley 
of Jala is famous for its great productiveness, the fertility of the soil being 
such that the planting of one bushel of corn is said to yield six hundred- 
fold. Besides cereals, cotton, tobacco, sugar cane, cofifee, beans, and 
rice grow luxuriantly. Agriculture is the chief industry of Tepic, and 
corn and beans are raised in considerable quantities all over the Terri- 
tory. Wheat and other cereals grow in the districts of Ahuacatlan and 
Tepic ; rice in Compostela, Tepic, Ahuacatlan, and San Bias ; cotton in 
Acaponeta and Santiago Ixcuintle ; and cofifee, tobacco, and sugar cane 
in all the districts of the Territory. 

The best coffee lands are in the district of Compostela, in the south 
of the Territory, and this finds its way to the markets of Germany and 
the United States. Rubber trees are found in their wild state, and are 
being tapped with profit. The soil is adapted for henequen, and is very 



312 MEXICO. 

suitable for the cultivation of the olive. Stock raising is carried on 
throughout the Territory, and there are some really largo herds of 
cattle, sheep and goats. 

The Territory has considerable mineral resources, v^'ith several well- 
known mining camps. The principal of these are Santa Maria del Oro, 
with rich gold-silver veins. In the Acaponeta district, about 160 kilo- 
meters (112 miles) north of Tepic, copper, silver and lead are found, with 
some low-grade gold-silver ores. At Santiago Ixcuintla, about 60 kilo- 
meters (38) miles) northwest of Tepic, and at Ixtlan, the same dis- 
tance to the southeast, are old mines worked with modern methods. At 
Ahuacatlan, very near Ixtlan, there is gold. About 65 kilometers north 
of the city of Tepic is the Yaqui copper prospect, with copper, zinc, gold 
and silver. 

Manufacturing to a noticeable degree is carried on in the Territory, 
especially in the city of Tepic, where there are cotton mills, soap and 
other factories, with modern machinery and appliances. 

San Bias, just west of the capital, is the chief seaport of the Territory; 
it has a good-sized trade, both local and foreign, but the harbor facilities 
are not satisfactory, so that further great development can be expected 
only when these are improved, and wdien the railways are extended into 
closer touch with the interior. The port is served by the following steam- 
ship lines: Compafiia Naviera del Pacifico, for coastwise (Mexican) 
commerce. Pacific Mail Steamship Company, for ports between San 
Francisco and Panama. Canadian-Mexican Pacific Steamship Company, 
for ports in Mexico and Vancouver and Victoria, British Columbia. 
Kosmos Line, for Pacific ports in both North and South America, and 
Germany. 

The Southern Pacific Railroad Companj^ of Mexico enters the Terri- 
tory by its main line from Mazatlan and is in operation (January, 1911) 
as far as Yago ; its plans are to continue through Ixtlan to reach Guada- 
lajara. The line between San Bias and Tepic is proposed. 

Cora, Huichol, Otomi and Tepehua are the native languages recognized. 

The Territory is divided politically into 7 Partidos, with 16 Municipali- 
ties, containing 2 cities, 6 towns, 45 villages, 47 organized estates, and 
1,091 hamlets. 

The Partidos are : Tepic, Acaponeta, Ahuacatlan, Compostela, Ixtlan, 
San Bias, Santiago Ixcuintla. 

Tepic is the capital and principal city of the Territory of that name. 
It is beautifully situated on a broad plain at the foot of the volcano of 
Sanganguey and on the margin of the Tepic River, which empties into 
the Santiago. It has fine buildings, both public and private, a handsome 
theater, a cathedral, banks, and a number of very attractive plazas. It is 
about 800 kilometers (500 miles) from Mexico City. 

TERRITORY OF QUINTANA ROO. 

The Territory of Quintana Roo was created by act of December 14, 
1900, and erected into a Federal Territory February 25, 1904. 

Boundary. Area, Population.- — -The Territory is bounded on the north 
by the Gulf of Mexico and the State of Yucatan ; on the east by the 
Caribbean Sea; on the south by the British Honduras and the Republic 
of Guatemala; and on the west by the States of Canipeche and Yucatan. 
It was formed from the eastern part of the State of Yucatan, as being 
more suitable for government under Federal than State control. Its 
area is 43,104 square kilometers (16,638 square miles). Its population 
(1910) is 9,086, of whom 6,070 are males and 3,016 are females. The 
country is largely inhabited by the Maya Indians, direct descendants of 
the peoples discovered there during the conquest. 



OUINTANA ROO. 313 



The climate is essentially tropical, as the configuration of the land is 
such that no great variation of altitude modifies its relation of latitude. 
Rain is abundant, and humidity prevails. 

The Territory has but one navigable river, the Rio Hondo, emptying 
into the Bahia de Chetumal, and forms the boundary between British 
Honduras and Mexico. Minor streams empty into the ocean after a 
slight course from the interior. A few lakes are located within the Ter- 
ritory, but from the coast are lagoons as insets from the Caribbean Sea. 
A great scarcity of surface water (springs) has always marked the 
region, as that of Yucatan also. 

Agriculture is of the most primitive kind, as there is no soil adapted 
to agriculture as understood in the United States. The entire region has 
been called a "petrified sea," or perhaps the roof of an immense cave. 
There are, however, possibilities for tropical agriculture, such as the 
cultivation of cocoanuts, the gathering of rubber and chicle, dye and 
hard-woods. Sponge fishing is carried on by Cubans, off the coast. 

Evidence of the existence of coal, petroleum and asphalt are present. 
Copper has been mined, and the entire region seems to be cupriferous, 
while early explorations demonstrated the use of copper instruments 
and the discovery of copper ore among the natives. 

A few natural harbors exist along the coast, which extends for about 
800 kilometers (500 miles), but this is studded with reefs and naviga- 
tion is dangerous on that account. Bahia de Ascension and Bahia del 
Espirito Santo are protected, and have an average depth of three fathoms. 
The Mexican Government has begun the construction of an artificial 
harbor at Xcalak, which is to be the outlet of the interior. Payo Obispo,, 
on the Bahia de Chetumal, at the mouth of the Rio Hondo, has a custom- 
house through which most of the traffic is considered. 

A (military) railway, 58 kilometers (36 miles), is operated from Vijia 
Chica, on the Bahia de la Ascension to Santa Cruz de Bravo. Under 
construction is an extension of this railway for about 160 kilometers (100 
miles) further to Peto, where connection will be made with the United 
Railways of Yucatan. 

The Territory is divided politically into 3 Districts, with 7 Municipali- 
ties, containing 1 city, 13 villages, 3 colonies and 4 hamlets. 

The Districts are : Centro, Norte, Sur. 

Santa Cruz de Bravo is the capital and principal city of the Territory. 
It is a military post, with a population of about 2,000, and some modern 
conveniences, and telegraphic communication with all parts of the Re- 
public. In this region are numerous remains of the old Maya civilization. 



314 MEXICO. 

APPENDIX I.* 

LIST OF TRIBES AND THEIR PRESENT HOMES. 

Athapasc.vn. 

Coyoteros — Now in Arizona. 
Changuaguanes — Chihuahua. 
Chilpaines — Coahuihi. 
Mimbreiios — Sonora. 

Chiap.\nfx.\n. 
■Chapanecos — Chiapas. 

Chinantecan. 

Tenez — Oaxaca. 
Teutecas — Oaxaca. 
Tzinantecos — Oaxaca. 



COAHUILTECAN. 

Alasapa — Coahuila, Nuevo Leon. 
Catuxanos — Coahuila, Tamaulipas. 
Coahuiltecos — Coahuila. 
Comecrudos — Tamaulipas. 
Conehos — Chihuahua. 
Cotoname— Coahuila. 
Chayopinos — Coahuila. 
Panzanes— Coahuila. 
Pihiques — Coahuila. 
Texanos — Tamaulipas. 

HUAVAN. 

Huaztontecos — Tehuantepec. 

Mayan. 

Alames — Chiapas. 

Cocomes — Yucatan. 

Comitecos — Chiapas. 

Chanabales — Chiapas. 

Cheles — Yucatan. 

Choles — Chiapas. 

Huastecas — Veracruz. 

Itza — Yucatan. 

Jocolabal — Chiapas, Chanabal. 

Kupules — Yucatan. 

Maya — Yucatan, Tabasco, Chiapas. 

Tarelepa — Southern Mexico. 

Tzentals — Tabasco, Chiapas. 

Tzontals — Chiapas. 



*The linguistic families as a list of tribes of Mexico are here given 
under the tribal name, with the locality with which each is particularly 
identified. 



LIST OF TRIBES. 315 



Nauhuatl. 



Acaxees — Sinaloa, Durango. 

Agualuce — Tabasco (also Ahualulco). 

Ateacaris — Jalisco. 

Aztecas — Anahuac. 

Cohuixcas — Guerrero. 

Colotlans — Jalisco. 

Corarus — Jalisco. 

Coras — Jalisco. 

Cuitlatecos — Guerrero, Michoacan. 

Chalcas — Lake Chalco. 

Chinarras — Chihuahua. 

Guazapari — Chihuahua. 

Huicholes — Zacatecas, Jalisco. 

Huites — Sinaloa. 

Humas — Chihuahua. 

Humes — Durango. 

Mazapil — Zacatecas. 

Sochimilcos — Lake Xochimilco, Valley of Mexico. 

Tlascalans — Tlascala. 

Yaquis — Sonora. 

Otomian. 

Charaeos — Michoacan. 

Charenses — Michoacan. 

Jonaz — Guanajuato, Queretaro. 

Mazahua — S. W. Valley of Mexico. 

Mecos — Zacatecas. 

Otomi — Middle States. 

Fames — Mexico, Queretaro, Guanajuato, Nuevo Leon, San Luis 

Potosi. 
Pirindas — Mexico, Michoacan. 
Serranos — Tamaulipas. 

PiMAN. 

Ahomaos — Sinaloa. 
Basiroa — Sonora, Sinaloa. 
Batucari — Sinaloa. 
Cahita — Sonora, Sinaloa. 
Comuripas — Sinaloa. 
Chinipa — Chihuahua. 
Eudeves — Sonora. 
Guaymas — Sonora. 
Himeris — Sonora. 
Hizos — Chihuahua. 
Matapanes — Sinaloa. 
Nevomes — Sonora. 
Opata — Sonora. 
Papagos — Sonora. 
Pimas — Sonora. 
Saharipas — Sonora. 
Sobaipuris — Sonora. 
Tarahumaras — Chihuahua. 
Teatas — Sonora. 
Tecoripas — Sonora. 
Tepeguana — Durango. 



316 MEXICO. 



Tanoan. 

Piros — Chihuahua. 

Tehua — Near El Paso, Pc-xas. 



Tarascan. 

Michoas — Michoacan. 

Tarascos — Michoacan. Guerrero, Guanajuato. Jalisco. 



Tequistlatf.can. 
Chontals — Oaxaca. 

Totonacan. 

Ipapancs — Veracruz. 
Naoling^os — Veracruz, Puebla. 
Tatimoles — Veracruz. 
Tektikilhatis — Veracruz 
Totonacos — Veracruz. 

YUMAN. 

Aripas— Lower California. 

Cochimis — North and Middle California Peninsula. 

Cocopas — Lower Colorado River. 

Comoyei — Lower Colorado River. 

Conchos — California. 

Coras — Lower California. 

Cuchan — California. 

Guaicuru — Lower California. 

Kutchan — Lower Colorado River. 

Laimonos — California Peninsula. 

Pericues — Low^er California. 

Seris — Sonora. 

Supis — Chihuahua. 

LTchitas — California. 

Zapotecan. 

Amuchgos — Guerrero. 

Cuicatecos — Oaxaca. 

Chatinos — Oaxaca and Chiapas. 

Chochona — Oaxaca. 

Chuchones — Oaxaca and Guerrero. 

Mazatecos — Oaxaca. 

Mixrecos — Oaxaca, Puebla, Guerrero. 

Netzichos — Oaxaca. 

Ocotlanos- -Oaxaca. 

Soltecos — Oaxaca. 

Tepozcolula — Oaxaca. 

Tlapanec — Guerrero. 

Triquis — Oaxaca. 

Xicayan — Guerrero, Puebla. 

Zapatecos — Oaxaca. 



LIST OF TRIBES. 



317 



ZOQUF.AN. 

Coviscos — Puebla. 

Chimalapas — Tehuantepec. 

Chinquimes — Puebla, Guerrero. 

Jopes — Chiapas. 

Mijes — Oaxaca. 

Pinomes — Tabasco, Chiapas, Oaxaca. 

Popolucas — Puebla. 

Tapijulapanes — Tehuantepec. 

Tecojines — Jalisco. 

Tenimes — Puebla. 

Yopes — Puebla. 




318 MEXICO. 



APPENDIX II. 

ANCIENT RKMAIN.S IN MEXICO. 



Agcascalientes : Lalnrinlhs and tunnels beneath the city, like catacombs. 

Ba.ta California: Rock paintings and inscriptions. 

Campeche: Paved roads, or calzadas ; tcrra-cotta idols, etc. Beneath the 
city is a system of caverns, excavated by the Mayas and used by 
them as catacombs. 

Chiapas : 

Palcnqite, ancient city of vast extent. 
Lorillard City, ruins resembling Palenque. 
OcocDigo, groups of ruins, sculptures, hieroglyphs. 

Chihuahua : Rio dc las Casas, adobe pueblos, Casas Grandes. 

Coahuila : 

San Lorenzo, rock paintings, mummies, relics. 
San Martin, ruins and pottery. 

CoLiMA : No remains reported. 

Dukango : 

Bolson, rock paintings and carvings, mummies, 

La Brena, caves yielding relics ; between Suchil Valley and Chalchi- 
huites, Chichimec remains. 

Gu.'\N.'\ju.\To: Only cave dwellings and relics. 

Guerrero: Foundations, remains of settlements. 
Ulna, ruins and burial places. 
Tlapa, tombs called Teteles. 
Dos Caminos, cave with pottery. 

Hidalgo: Tula, pyramid, sculptures, idols, relics. 

Jalisco : Artificialized hills. 

L. Cliapala, vestiges of ancient settlements and pottery. 



Mexico: 



Actopan. pottery relics. 

Alniclniepa, statue bearing hieroglyphics. 



ANCIENT REMAINS. 319 

Mexico (continued) : 

L Chalco, causeways across the lake; traces of ancient citv on Xico 
Island; sculptures on Misquique Island; sculptures at Xochimilco ; 
carved cylmdrical stones at Tlahuac; ancient town of Culhuacan ; 
idols, heads, fallen pyramids at Tlalmanalco. 

Chapultepec, carvings on cliffs. 

Malinalco,^ ancient wood carvings. 

Mexico City, or Tenochtitlan. In the city all temples, etc have been 
razed; calendar stone, sacrificial stone, statue of Coatlicue sculp- 
tures at Tlatelulco; ruins of fortified hill at Tenango In 1901 
excavations for sewers brought to light an ancient temple near the 
cathedral. ^ 

Mecaniecan, rock pyramid, carved. 

NavajaSj obsidian mines. 

0?umba, carved blocks of stone. 

Remedios, terraced, stone-faced hill. ' 

Tacuha, ruins, pyramids of sun-dried bricks 

T^rrMco, causeway at Chapingo; idols, pottery, relics at Contadorr 
terraced hill and aqueduct at Tetzcutzinco (Reyes, 1888) • stone 
wall in mortar at Huejutla; ruins of ancient city at San Juan Teoti- 
huacan, immense terraced pyramids faced with stone, known also 
as the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, and paved way 

OJuniba, rums at Tulacingo and San Miguel. 

Xonacatepec, stone masks, carved circular stone. 

Yahualua, tombs with stone images, northward. 

Tyupilco, buildings of thin blocks of stone. 

Zacualpan, stone masks and relics. 

Michoacan: Opals and other gems, and remains at Jiquilpan ; small 
moimds at Irimbo; rock carvings on Aniche Island; ancient capital 
ot larascos at Z'mtzuntzan, L. Patzcuaro. 

MORELOS : 

Xochicalco. terraced hill, paved roads, galleries, hill covered with 
masonry, summit platform, fine sculptures, Penafiel, 1890 ch viii 

C«er«fljaa7, figures carved on bowlders; temple pyramid ' 
1 epostlan. 

NuEVA Leon: No antiquities reported. 
Oajaca : 

Tehuantepec, pyramids with stairs, fortresses, ruins, underground 
tombs, pottery, Estrada, 1892; ruins of Quiengola 1896 

Magdalena, statue of Zapotec prophet, Wixepecocha 

Fetapa, caves with painted walls. 

Loallaga, mound and hieroglyphics. 

Chihuittan^ ancient bridge. 

Guatulco, ruins of ancient city. 

Tlacolula, mound of earth. 

Ouiyechapa, ruined fortress. 

Etla, underground tombs, images 

^Te'oS'lan^"" preserved by lime; pyramid at Tepantepec, tombs at 

Ouilapan, mounds evervwhere. 

Monte Alban, fortified" holy place, subterranean chambers, pyramid 
hieroglyphics, etc. Piidium, 




y. -5 



H 



Ph 



.^ c 



ANCIENT REMAINS. 321 



Oajaca (continued) : 



Zachila, mounds, burnt bricks, walls, statues; Tombs of Xoxo (Sa- 

ville, 1899). 
Mitla, finest ruin in the State and one of the grandest in Mexico. 
Quietepee, hill covered with ruins, platforms, terrace walls, pyramid; 

at Tuxtepec, mound 63 feet high. 
Huahnapam, sculptures in low relief, pottery, gold objects. 
Yanghiltan, sculptured human figures. 

PUEBLA : 

Tehuacan^ ruins of stone structures. 

Child, pyramid of hewn stone, cement covering, stairway. 

Tepiaca, sculptured head and slabs. 

Tepi.ve, storied pyramid, hewn stone, lime mortar. 

San Cristobal, storied pyramid, stairway, graded way. 

Cholula, storied pyramid, 1,440 feet square, 200 feet high. 

Chalchicomula, storied pyramid with stairs. 

QuatiilJiqiiclchula, relief; ruins at San Pablo. 

QUERETARO : 

Qiieretaro City, fortified hills, pyramids, works. 
Pueblita, stone walls, sculptures, mounds. 
Ranas, forts, pyramids with stairs, burial mounds. 
Toliiquilla, ancient city and fort. Reyes, 1881. 
San Juan, mound containing idols. 

San Luis Potosi : No remains reported. 

SiNALOA : Vestiges of ruins at Mazatlan. 

SoNORA : Ruins at Babiacori; grottos containing mummies at Sohuaripa. 

Tamaulipas : 

Encarnacion, stone idol. 

Cramelote Creel?, mounds, dressed stone, images, pottery. 
Salt Lake, pyramidal mounds, stone faced, with steps. 
Zopila, mounds faced with stone, carved stones, pottery. 
Tampico, idols of basalt, carvings, pottery. 

Tlaxcala : 

Malinche, walls, pyramids, stone images. 

San Pablo, kneeling figure in stone. 

Natividad, terraced hill, ruins, standing stones, relics. 

Cacaxtlan, fort, ditches, underground ways. 

Tlaxcala, sculptures, pottery, stone bridges, brick parapets, obelisk at 

Pueblo de los Reyes, wall on frontier of State. 
Tizatlan, ruins, called Xicotencatl. 

Veracruz : 

Veracruz City, ports, pyramids, foundations, graves, west of the city, 

in abundance. 
SacriUcios I , temple, sepulcher, relics. 




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ANCIENT REMAINS. 



325 



Veracruz (continued) : 

Caxapa, ruined city, colossal head. 

Orizaba, sculptured yokes, carvings, grotto. 

Jalapa, serpent carved in rock. Pyramid on Mecaltepec. Xico, rock 

carvings, mounds around base of volcanic cone. 
Puente Nacional, storied pyramid, with stairs. 
Cordoba, line of forts. 

Ceulla, terraced pyramid faced with hewn stone, forts. 
Huatusco, pyramid with broad stairway, forts. 
Mirador, baths and rock inscriptions. 
Zacuapdn, pyramid, plaza, terraced walls. 
Tlacotepec, forts and aqueduct. 
Consoquitla, fort, plastered pyramids, idols, relics. 
Calcahualco, forts, pyramids, columns. 
Misantla, pyramids of hewn stone pavements, ruins. 
Jalancingo, walls of hewn stone, subterranean shrines. 
Papantla, terraced storied pyramid; other pyramids at Mapilca ranch. 
Tusapan, pyramid wijh stairs, building on top. 
Metlaltoyuca, pyramids of hewn stone, pavements. 
Panuco, statues and relics. 
San Nicolas, oven-like chamber, ruins. 

Yucatan : 

Uxmal, immense Maya ruins; also pyramids, sculptures, and statues 

near Uxmal, at Senuisacal, Muna, Sacbe, Nohcacab, Xcoch, Nohpat. 
Kabah, grotip of 16 structures, storied buildings, sculptures, arches; 

Southeast from Kabah, ruins at Sanacte, Xampon, Chack, Sabacehe. 
Zayi and Labnd. 

Kewick, Xkichmook, and Xul, ruined cities and paintings. 
Tekax, ruins at Sacacal, Ticum, Santa Maria, and Chacchob. 
Loltun, caves, underground water supply. 
Akil and Mani, remains of cities. 
Chicken Itza, ruined city and forts, sculptures; near-by ruins at Tinum, 

I'lspita, Xocen, Sitax, Coba. 
Ticul, pyramidal mounds, ruins. 

Mayapan, mounds, sculptures, remains of ancient Maya capital. 
Merida, on ruins of ancient city of Tahoo. 
Ake, ruins of rude architecture. 
Izamal, pyramids, sculptures. 
Bolonclicn, wells (cenotes), sculptures. 
Labphak, grand Maya ruin. 
Iturbide, mound of ruins, ancient town, remains near Noyaxche, 

Macoba, Mankeesh, Jalal, Yakatzib, Becanchen. 
Tuloom, walled town. (Holmes, 1895.) 
Cozumel, buildings and cisterns. Ruins also at Point Nisuc, mouth 

of Petampich River, Kancune Island, Mujeres Island. 
Cayo Ratones, Cape Catoche, Yalahao, Emal, Monte Cuyo, Rio La- 

gartos. Port Silan. 
; Maxcanu, mounds with galleries, ruins, sehotes (underground water 
; supplies). Owing to the geological formation there are no water 

courses on the surface. 

iZacatecas : 

] Quemada. Immense ruins on mesa, roads, mounds, dressed stone, 
! "'terraces, but no inscriptions or architectural decorations. At Que- 
! mada, coming southward, begin those monuments in stone that mark 

the virile culture of southern Mexico as against the feminal arts in 

clay farther north. Seler, 1908. 




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VICEROYALTIES. 327 

APPENDIX III. 

ViCEROYALTIES. 

1. D. Antonio de Mendoza 1535 to 1550 

2. D. Luis D. Velasco 1550 to 1564 

3. D. Gaston de Peralta 1566 to 1568 

4. D. M. Enriquez de Almanza 1568 to 1580 

5. Conde de la Corutia 1580 to 1583 

6. D. Pedro Moya de Contreras 1584 to 1585 

7. Marques de Villa Manrique 1585 to 1590 

8. D. Luis de Velasco, el 2° 1590 to 1595 

9. Conde de Monterey 1595 to 1603 

10. Marques de Montes Claros 1603 to 1607 

11. D. Luis de Velasco el 2°, 2° epoca 1607 to 1611 

12. Dn. Fi-ay Garcia Guerra 1611 to 1612 

13. Marques Guadalcazar 1612 to 1621 

14. Marques de Galves 1621 to 1624 

15. Marques de Cerralvo 1624 to 1635 

16. Marques de Caderej'ta 1635 to 1640 

17. Duque de Escalona 1640 to 1642 

18. D. Juan de Palafox y Mendoza 1642 

19. Conde de Salvatierra 1642 to 1648 

20. Marcos Torres y Rueda 1648 to 1649 

21. Conde de Alva de Liste 1650 to 1653 

.22. Duque de Alburquerque 1653 to 1660 

23. Marques de Leiva 1660 to 1664 

24. D. D. Osorio de Escobar y Liamas 1664 

25. Marques de Mancera 1664 to 1673 

Id. Duque de Veraguas 1673 

27. D. Fr. Payo de Rivera '.'.'.'.1673 to 1680 

28. Marques de la Laguna 1680 to 1686 

29. Conde de Monclova 1686 to 1688 

30. Conde de Galve 1688 to 1696 

•31. J. Ortega y Montanez 1696 

32. Conde de Moctezuma y Tula 1696 to 1701 

ZZ. Duque de Alburquerque, 2° vez 1702 to 1711 

■34. Duque de Linares 1711 to 1716 

35. Marques de Valero 1716 to 1722 

Zd. Marques de Casa Fuerte 1722 to 1734 

37. D. J. Antonio de Vizarron 1734 to 1740 

38. Duque de la Conquista 1740 to 1741 

39. Conde de Fuenclara 1742 to 1744 

40. ler. Conde de Revillagigedo 1746 to 1755 

41. Marques de las Amarillas 1755 to 1760 

42. D. Francisco Cagigal 1760 

43. Marques de Cruillas 1760 to 1766 

44. Marques de Croix 1766 to 1771 

45. D. Antonio M. Bucareli 1771 to 1779 

46. D. Martin de Mayorga 1779 to 1783 

47. D. Matf as de Galvez 1783 to 1784 

■48. D. Bernardo de Galvez 1785 to 1786 

49. D. Alonzo Nufiez de Haro 1787 

50. D. Manuel Antonio Flores 1787 to 1789 

51. 2° Conde de Revillagigedo 1789 to 1794 



328 



MEXICO. 



52. Alanines do Brancifortc 1794 to 1798 

53. D. Miguel do Azauza 1798 to 1800 

54. V Berenifuer de Marquina 1800 to 1803 

55. D. J. dc Iturrigarav 1803 to 1808 

56. D. Pedro Garil)av 1808 to 1809 

57. D. Franco Javier Lizana 1809 to 1810 

58. Francisco J. Veneeas 1810 to 1813 

59. Felix M. Callcja 1813 to 1816 

60. Tuan Ruiz de Apodaca 1816 to 1821 

61. b Juan O'Donoju 1821 




GOVERNMENTS SINCE INDEPENDENCE. 329 

APPENDIX IV. 
GOVERNMENTS SINCE INDEPENDENCE. 

First Period. 

First Regency— September 28, 1821, to April 11, 1822. 

Second Regency— April 11, 1822, to May 18, 1822. 

A.UGUSTIN I, Emperor— Proclaimed May 18, 1822; took oath May 2U 
crowned July 21, 1822; abdicated March 19, 1823. 

Provisional Government — The Marquis of Vivanco, political chief of 
Mexico, took charge on the abdication of Iturbide. Congress March 31, 
1823, elected a Supreme Executive Council of Three, which entered upon. 
its duties April 2, 1823. 

Federal Republic. 
Under the Constitution of October 4, 1824. 

President— General Guadalupe Victoria, October 10, 1824, to April 1,. 
1829. 

Vice-President — General Nicolas Bravo. 

President— General Vicente Guerrero, April 1, 1829, to December 17^ 
1829. 

Vice-President — General Anastacio Bustamente. 

Acting President— Licentiate Jose Maria de Bocanegra, December 17, 
1829, to December 23, 1829. 

Supreme Executive Council— December 23, 1829, to December 31, 1829. 

President— General Anastacio Bustamente, December 31, 1829, to August 
14, 1832. 

Acting President— General Melchor Muzquiz, August 14, 1832. to De- 
cember 24, 1832. 

President— General Manuel Gomez Pedraza, December 24, 1832, to 
April 1, 1833. 

President — General Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, April 1, 1833, to 
January 28, 1835. 

Vice-President— Don Valentin Gomez Farias, who acted as President 
during absences of Santa-Anna. 

President— General Miguel Barragan, January 28, 1835, to February 
27, 1836. 

President— Licentiate Jose Justo Corro, February 27, 1836, to April 19,. 
1837. 

Centralized Republic. 
Under Constitution of January 1, 1837. 

President— General Anastacio Bustamente, April 19. 1837, to March 18, 
1839. On the latter date Bustamente was replaced by Santa-Anna. From 
July 10, to July 17, 1839, General Nicolas Bravo acted as President. Bus- 
tamente was in charge from July 17, 1839, to September 22, 1841, when 
Don Javier Echeverria was installed as Acting President. It is not even 



330 MEXICO. 

known how long Echcverria aoli.(l in that cai)acil\. \nn il i> snppuscd until 
about October 3, 1841. 

DlCT.\T()K.sllll'. 

Under the Plan of Tacubaya. 

Provision.vl President — General Anlonii) Lopez de Santa-Anna, Octo- 
ber 10, 1841, to October 26, 1842. 

Substitute President — General Nicolas Bravo, October 26, 1842, to 
March 5, 1843. 

Provisional President — General Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, March 
5, 1843, to October 4, 1843. 

Substitute President — General Valentin Canalizo, October 4, 1843, to 
February 1, 1844. 

Substitute President — Genera! Valentin Canalizo, February 1, 1844, to 
June 4, 1844. (Canalizo during this period was acting in place of Santa- 
Anna, who had been elected Constitutional President under the Organic 
Bases of June 12. 1843.) 

Ckntr.'\lized Republic. 
Under the Constitution of June 12, r843. 

President — General Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna. June 4, 1844, to 
September 12, 1844. 

Acting President — General Jose Joaquin de LTerrera, September 12. 
1844, to September 21, 1844. 

Acting President — General Valentin Canalizo, September 21, 1844, to 
December 6, 1844. 

President — General Jose Joaquin de Herrera, December 6, 1844, to 
December 30, 1845. 

President^ — General Mariano Paredes v Arrillaga, Januarv 4, 1846, to 
July 28, 1846. 

President— General Nicolas Bravo, July 28, 1'846, to August 4, 1846. 

Acting President — General Jose Mariano Salas, August 5, 1846, to 
December 24, 1846. By decree of August 22, 1846, the Constitution of 
1824 was re-established. 

Federal Republic. 
(Again) Under the Constitution of 1824. 

Vice-President and Acting President — Don Valentin Gomez Farias, 
December 24, 1846, to March 21, 1847. 

President — General Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, ]\Iarch 22. 1847, 
to April 1, 1847. 

Si'BSTiTuiE President — General Pedro M. Anava, April 1, 1847, to 
IMay 20, r347. 

President — General Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, ]\lay 20, 1847, to 
September 16, 1847. 

President — Licentiate Manuel de la Pefia y Pefia, September 16, 1847, 
to November 14, 1847. 

Acting President — General Pedro M. Anava, Novemlier 14, 1847, to 
January 8, 1848. 



HEADS OF GOVERNMENT. 



331 



President and Acting President — Don flannel de la Pena y Pena,, 
January 8, 1848, to June 2, 1848. 

President — General Jose Joaquin de Herrera, June 2, 1848, to January 
15, 1851. 

President— General ]\Iariano Arista, January 15, 1851, to January 5,. 
1853. 

Acting President— Don Juan B. Ceballos, January 5, 1853, to February 
7, 1853. 

Depository of the Execttive Power — General Manuel ^I. Lombardine,. 
February 7, 1853, to April 20, 1853. 

Dictatorship. 
President with Full Powers — General Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna,. 
April 20, 1853, to August 11, 1855. 

Governments Subsequent to the Revolution of Ayutla. 

Acting President— General ^Martin Carrera, August 14, 1855, to Sep- 
tember 12, 1855. 

In Charge of Federal District — General Romulo Diaz de la Vega, 
September 12, 1855, to October 4, 1855. 

Acting President — General Juan Alvarez, October 4, 1855, to December 
9, 1855. 

Substitute President — General Ignacio Comonfort, December 11. 1855,. 
to December 1, 1857. 

President — General Ignacio Comonfort, December 1, 1857, to December 
19, 1857. (On the latter date, Comonfort joined a revolution against his 
own Government.) 

Provisional President — Don Benito Juarez, December 19. 1857, to June 
15, 1861. 

President — Don Benito Juarez, June 15, 1861, to November 8, 1865. 

President — Bon Benito Juarez, November 8, 1865, to December 25, 
1867. President Juarez proclaimed himself for this term, as the occupancjr 
of the country by the French and Imperialists rendered elections im- 
possible. 

President— Don Benito Juarez, December 25, 1867, to December 1, 
1871. 

President — Don Benito Juarez, December 1, 1871, to July 18, 1872 
(died). 

President— Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, Julv 18, 1872. to December 1, 
1872. 

President — Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, December 1, 1872, to November 
21. 1876. 

Provisional President — General Porfirio Diaz. November 28, 1876, to- 
December 6, 1876. 

In Charge of the Executive Power — General Juan N. Mendez, Decem- 
ber 6, 1876, to February 16, 1877. 

Provisional President — General Porfirio Diaz, February 16, 1877, to 
May 5, 1877. 

President— General Porfirio Diaz, May 5, 1877, to November 30. 1880. 

President— General Manuel Gonzalez, December 1. 1880, to November 
30, 1884. 



-332 MEXICO. 

Presidknt — General Porfirio Diaz, December 1, 1884, to Novemlier 30, 

1888. Also from December 1, 1888. to November 30, 1892; December 1, 

1892, to November 30, 1896; December 1, 1896, to November 30, 1900; 

December 1, 19(1). to November 30, 1904. December 1, 1904, to November 

-30, 1910; December 1, 1910, to May 2.5, 1911. 

Vice-President Since December 1, 1904 — Don Raninn Curral to Ma\ 
25, 1911. 

Provisional Pkk.sidknt, Lie. l-'ranciscd Leon de la P.arra, May 25, 1911. 

De F.\cto Governments. 

When General Comonfort joined, on December 19, 1857, a revolution 
■against his own administration, he ceased to be President de jure and 
accepted the title of Pro\isional President. 

A new Plan having been proclaimed on January 11, 1858, Comonfort 
was deposed by the troops, and an Assembly of Representatives elected as 
Provisional President Don Felix Zuloaga. 

The Plan of Ayotla (not to be confused with Ayutla), December 20, 
1858, placed Don Manuel Robles Pezuela in control of the situation, and 
he convoked a "popular assemlily," which met on December 30, 1858, and 
designated Don Miguel Miramon as President and Robles Pez-uela as 
Vice-President. 

But IMiramon repudiated this arrangement, and on January 24. 1859, 
reinstated Zuloaga. 

However, by a decree of January 29, 1859, solemnly promulgated on 
February 1, 1859, Zuloaga designated Miramon as his substitute. 

Miramon took possession on February 2, 1859, and de facto ruled 
Mexico until August 13. 1860. 

On the latter date an Assembly of Representatives was convoked to 
-appoint an acting President. 

Pending the deliberations of the Assembly, Don Ignacio Pavon acted as 
President. 

On August 14, 1860, the Assembly chose Miramon as acting President, 
and he took possession on August 15, 1860. 

On December 25, 1860, Miramon fled from the capital, and early next 
•year went abroad. 

When President Juarez departed from the capital, on May 31, 1863, a 
junta was formed, which declared its acceptance of French intervention, 
-while Don Jose Mariano Salas took temporary charge of civil and mili- 
tary administration. 

On June 16, 1863, a junta was convoked by Forey, and this junta ap- 
pointed a council to take charge of the Executive power, consisting of 
Don Juan N. Almonte, Archbishop Labastida, and Don Jose Mariano 
'Salas, with Don Juan B. Ormaechea and Don Ignacio Pavon as sub- 
stitute members. 

On July 10, 1863, a junta of notables had accepted the proposed mon- 
archy, with Maximilian as Emperor. 

On July 11, 1863, the Executive Council changed its name into that 
of Regency of the Empire. 

On April 10, 1864, Maximilian at Miramar accepted the imperial crown. 
On May 28, 1864, he landed at Veracruz, arrived at the capital June 12, 
1864, and on June 19, 1867, he, with his two chief generals, IMiramon and 
TV'Iejia, was shot. 



LIST OF STATES. 



333 



APPENDIX V. 

Alphabetical list of States, with post office abbreviations, their area and 
population, and altitude of their capitals. 



States and 

Territories, 

with abbreviations. 



.\rea. 

Square 

Miles. 



Area, 

Square 

Kilometers- 



Population, 
1900. 



Population, 
1910. 



Aguascalientes Ags 2,969 

Campeche Cam ; 18,086 

Chiapas Chis I 27,222 

Chihuahua Chih ! 89.974 

Coahuila Coah \ 63,728 

Colima Col 2,273 

Durango Dgo 42,265 

Guanajuato Gto 10.948 

Guerrero Gro j 24,996 

Hidalgo Hgo ! 8,575 

Jalisco Jal i 33,486 

Mexico Mex 8,949 

Michoacan Mich j 22,656 

Morelos Mor ! 2,734 

Nuevo Leon N. L 23,679 

Oaxaca Oax j 35,383 

Puebla Pue. i 12,204 

Queretaro Qro 4,492 

San Luis Potosi S. L. P. . . . : 24,000 

Sinaloa Sin : 27,553 

Sonora Son. 1 76,619 



Tabasco Tab. . . 

Tamaulipas Tarn. . , 

Tlaxcala Tlax. . , 

Veracruz Ver. . . 

Yucatan Yuc. . . 

Zacatecas Zac. . . . 

Federal District . . . . D. F. . 
L. California (Ter.) . B. Cfa. 
Tepic (Ter.) Tep. .. 



Quintana Roo (Ter.) Q. R. 



10,072 
32,268 
1,595 
29,283 
18,565 
24,467 
579 
58,328 
10,951 



16,638 



7,692 
46,855 
70,524 

233,094 

165,099 
5,887 

109,495 
28,363 
64,756 
22,215 
86,752 
23,185 
58,694 
7,082 
61,343 
91,664 
31,616 
11,638 
62,177 
71,380 

198,496 
26,094 
■83,597 
4,132 
75.863 
48,097 
63,386 
1,499 

151,109 
28,371 



43,104 



765,5371 1,983,259 



102,416 
86,542 
360,799 
327,784 
296,938 
65,115 
370,294 

1,061,724 
479.205 
605,051 

1,153,891 
934,463 
935,808 
160.115 
327,937 
948.633 

1,021,133 
232,389 
575,432 
296,701 
221,682 
159,834 
218,948 
172,315 
981,030 
309,652 
462,190 
541,516 
47.624 
150,098 

Included in 

the State of 

Yucatan at 

this date 

13,607,259 



118,978 
85,795 
436,817 
405,265 
367,652 
77,704 
436,147 

1,075,270 
605,437 
641,895 

1,202,802 
975,019 
991,649 
179,814 
368,929 

1,041,035 

1,092,456 
243,515 
624,748 
323,499 
262,545 
183,708 
249,253 
183,805 

1,124,368 
337,020 
475,863 
719,052 
52,244 
171,837 



9,086 
15,063,207 



3.U 



MEXICO. 



Altitudics of the Capitals of the States, Federal Dlstrict axu the 

Tekritokies. 



States. 


Capital. 


Feet. 

1 


Meters. 


Aguascalieiites 


Aguascalientes 


6,181 


1,884 


Canipeche 


Campeche 


Sea level 


Sea level 


Chiapas 


Tuxtla Gutierrez 


1.594 


486 


Chihuahua 


Chihuahua 


4,759 


1.451 


Coahuila 


Saltillo 


5,397 


1.676 


Colinia 


Colinia 


1,476 


450 


Duraiigo 


Durango 


6,207 


1,892 


Guanajuato 


Guanajuato 


6,759 


2,060 


Guerrero 


Chilpancingo 


4,526 


1,380 


Hidalgo 


Pachuca 


7,954 


2,424 


Jalisco 


Guadalajara 


6,069 


1,850 


Mexico 


Toluca 


8,610 


2,624 


Michoacan 


Morelia 


6,201 


1,890 


]\Iorc]os 


Cuernavaca 


5,428 


1,654 


Nuevo Leon 


Monterrey 


1,593 


486 


Oaxaca 


Oaxaca 


5,069 


1,545 


Puebla 


Puebla 


7,077 


2,157 


Queretaro 


Queretaro 


6,166 


1.879 


San Luis Potosi 


San Luis Potosi 


5,786 


1,703 


Sinaloa 


Culiacan 


112 


34 


Sonora 


Hermosillo 


776 


236 


Tabasco 


San Juan Bautista 


33 


10 


Tamaulipas 


Ciudad Victoria 


1,473 


449 


Tlaxcala 


Tlaxcala 


7,388 


2,252 


Veracruz 


Jalapa 


8,924 


2,690 


Yucatan 


Merida 


26 


8 


Zacatecas 


Zacatecas 


8,013 


2,442 


Federal District 


Mexico 


7,875 


2,400 


Territories 








Baja California -^ 


Ensenada (north) 
La Paz (south) 


Sea level 
Sea level 


Sea level 
Sea level 


Quintana Roo 


Santa Cruz de Bravo 


23 


7 


Tepic 


Tepic 


3,123 


952 




Independencf. Monument Dedicated in Mexico City, 16th of September, 1910. 



336 MEXICO. 



APPENDIX \1. 
cx^N'STi irriox 

Sanctioned and Swjkn by the Gisnerai. Constituent Congress the 5th Day of 

J'-EBRl'ARY, 1857. 

Icnacio CoMONi'ORT, .Sul.stit '.ite President of the Mexican Kfiniljlic. to its in- 
habitants. Know Ye: 

Tliat the extraordinary constituent Congress has decreed the following: 

In the name of God and by the ai.itho:ity of the Me.xican people. 

Tlie representatives of the difl'ercnt States, of the District and of tlie Terri- 
tories whicli compose tlie Republic of Mexico, called upon by the ]irovisions of the 
"plan" proclaimed in Avutla the first of March, eighteen hundred and fifty-foin-, 
amended in Acapulco the eleventh day of the same month and year, and by the 
summons issued the seventeentli of October, eighteen hundred and fifty-five, to con- 
vene for the purpose of framing a constitution for the nation and making it a 
popular representative, democratic republic, exercising the powers with which they 
are vested, do hereby ron;ply with the requirements of their higii office, by de- 
creeing the following: 

CONSTITUTION 

Of the Mexican Rkpublic on the Indestructible Basis of Its Legitmate Inde- 
pendence, Proclaimed the 16th of September, 1821. 



section I. 
The rights of man. 

Article 1. The Mexican people recognize that the rights of man arc the basis 
and the object of social institutions. Consequently they declare that all laws and all 
the authorities of the country must respect and maintain the guaranties which the 
present Constitution establishes. 

The State and Church are independent of each other. The Congress shall not 
enact laws establishing or prohibiting any religion.* 

Art. 2. In the Republic all are born free. Slaves who set foot upon the national 
territory recover, by that act alone, their liberty, and have a right to the protection 
of the laws. 

Marriage is a civil contract. It and all other acts of the civil status of persons, 
are of the exclusive cognizance of the officials and authorities of the civil order 
(del orden civil), in the terms prescribed by the laws, and shall have the force and 
effect which the laws give them.* 

.'\rt. 3. Instruction is free. The law shall determine what professions require 
a diploma for their exercise, and what requisites are necessary to obtain said diplomas. 

Art. 4. Every man is free to engage in any honorable and useful profession, 
industrial pursuit, or occupation suitable to him, atid to avail himself of its prod- 
ucts. The exercise of this liberty shall not be hindered except by judicial sentence 
when such exercise attacks the rights of a third party, or by executive order issued 
in the manner specified by law, when it offends the rights of society. 

Art. 5. No one can be obliged to render personal service withQut just compensa- 
tion and without his full consent, except work imposed as a penalty by judicial 
authority. 

In regard to public service, that of bearing arms can only be obligatory, and the 
electoral functions, municipal oflficcs and the duties of jury service, obligatory and 
gratuitous, in the terms established by the respective laws. 

The State cannot jiermit effect to be given to any contract, pact or agreement 
having for its object the restraint, the loss, or the irrevocable sacrifice of the liberty 
of man, whether on account of work, of education or of religious vows. 

The law, therefore, does not recognize monastic orders, and can not permit their 
establishment, whatever be the denomination or object for which they are sought 
to be established. Neither shall any contract be permitted in which a man stipu- 
lates for his own proscription or exile.t 



*These additional paragraphs were added to Articles I and II by the decree 
(Amendment of September 25, 1873). By this same decree three other amendments 
were passed, but these have been incorporated respectively in Article 2/, Article 
121, and Article V of the present Constitution. 

fAmendment of June 10, 1898. 



CONSTITUTION. 337 

Art. 6. The expression of ideas shall not be the object of any judicial or execu- 
tive investigation, except in case it attacks morality, the rights of a third party 
provokes crime or misdemeanor, or disturbs public order. 

Art. 7. The liberty to write and to publish writings on any subject is inviolable 
JVo law or authority shall establish previous censorship, or require authors or printers 
to give bond, or restrict the liberty of the press, which has no other limits than 
respect of private life, morality, and the public peace. Ibe crimes which may be 
committed by means of the press shall be tried by the competent Tribunals of the 
-Federation, or by those of the States, of the Federal District and Territory of 
Lower California, according to their penal legislation.* 

Art. 8. The right of petition, exercised in writing in a peaceful and respectful 
manner, is inviolable; but in political matters only citizens of the Republic may ex- 
ercise it. To every petition an answer shall be given in writing, in the form of a 
decree, by the official ;.o whom it may have been addressed, and the said official 
is bound to make the petitioner acquainted with the result. 

Art. 9. No one shall be deprived of the right to peaceably associate or unite with 
others for any lawful purpose; but only citizens of the Republic are permitted to 
take part in the political affairs of the country. No armed reunion has the right to 
•deliberate. 

Art. 10. Every m.an has the right to possess and carry arms for his security and 
legitimate defense. The law shall designate what arms are prohibited, and the pun- 
ishment to be incurred by those who carry them. 

Art. 11. Every man has the right to enter and leave the Republic, to travel 
through its territory, and -change his residence, without the necessity of a letter of 
security, passport, safe conduct, or other similar requisite. The exercise of this 
right shall not affect the legitimate faculties of the judicial or executive authorities 
in cases of criminal or civil responsibility, and to the limitations imposed by the law 
upon emigration, immigration and the general health of the country. t 

Aet. 12. No titles of nobility or prerogatives, or hereditary honors, are, or shall 
he recognized in the Republic. Only the people, legitimately represented, may decree 
recompenses in honor of those who have rendered or may render eminent services to 
the country or to humanity. 

Art. 13. In the Mexican Republic no one shall be tried according to special 
la\ys, or by special tribunals. No person or corporation shall have privileges or 
€njoy emoluments which are not in compensation for a public service and established 
by law. Military jurisdiction shall be recognized only for the trial of criminal cases 
having strict connection with military discipline. The law shall clearly set forth 
the cases included in this exception. 

Art. 14. No retroactive law shall be enacted. No person shall be tried or 
sentenced except under laws previously enacted, exactly applicable to the case, and 
by a tribunal previously established by law. 

Art. is. No treaty shall be made for the extradition of political offenders, or of 
offenders of the common class, who have been slaves in the country where the 
offense was committed; nor shall any agreenent or treaty be entered into wiiich 
abridges or modifies the guaranties and rights which this Constitution grants to the 
man and to the citizen. 

Art. 16. No one shall be molested in his person, family, domicile, papers or 
possessions, except by virtue of an order in writing of the competent "authority, 
setting forth the legal grounds upon which the measure is taken. In cnscs of 
in flagrante delicto any person may apprehend the offender and his accomplices, 
placing them without delay at the disposal of the nearest authorities. 

Art. 17. No one shall be arrested for debts of a purely civil character. No one 
shall exercise violence in order to enforce his rights. The tribunals shall always 
be open for the administration of justice, which shall be gratuitous, judicial costs 
lieing consequently abolished. 

Art. 18. Imprisonment shall take jilace only for crimes deserving corporal pun- 
ishment. In any stage of the case in which it shall appear that such a punishment 
•can not be imposed upon the accused, he shall be set at libeity on bail. In no case 
shall the irnprisonment or detention be prolonged for failure to pay fees, or any 
other pecuniary charge. 

Art. 19. No detention shall exceed the term of three days, unless justified by a 
warrant, issued in accordance to law, and giving the grounds for the imprisonment. 
■The mere lapse of faid time shall render the authority that orders or consents to 
it and the agents, ministers, wardens or jailors who execute it, responsible therefor. 
y\ny maltreatment in the apprehension or in the confinement of the prisoners, any 
molestation which may be inflicted without legal ground, or any tax or contribution 
in the prisons, is an abuse which the laws must correct and the authorities se- 
verely punish. 

Art. 20. In every criminal trial tl^e accused shall have the following guaranties: 
I. That the grounds of the proceedings and the name of the accuser, if there 
shall be one, be made i.nown to him. 



*Amendment of May IS. 1883. Offenses against the liberty of the press are 
punished by Arts. 986 and 967, of the Federal Penal Code of December, 1871. 

tAmendment of 27 October, 1908. See Art. 72, fraction XXI and note 33 to 
■same. 



338 -Mi; XI CO. 

li. Thai iiis ii'iiiiiiaary ixamination be inailf within forty-i-ight hours, to be 
counted from the time he may be placed at tlic disposal of the juilgc. 

III. That he be confronted with the witnesses who testify against him. 

IV. That he be furnished with all the iiitorn.alion on record, which he may 
need for his defons'.;. 

V. That he be heaid in his defense, either personally or by counsel, or by 
both, as he may desire. In case he should liave no one to defend him, a list of 
official counselors shall be shown to him, in order that he may choose one or more 
to act as his counsel. 

Art. 21. The imposition of penalties iiropcrly so called belongs exclusively to the 
judicial authority. 'Ihe po'itical or executive authorities shall only have power to 
impose tines and im| risonir.cnt, as disciplinary measures, the former of no more than 
five hundred dollars, and t'le latter for no more than one month, in the cases and 
in the manner whicli the law shall expressly determine. 

Art. 22. Punishments by mutilation and infamy, by branding, flogging, beating 
with sticks, torture of whatever kind, excessive fines, confiscation of property, or any 
other penalties, unusual, or working corruption of blood, shall be forever prohibited. 

Art. 23. The penalty of death for political offenses is abolished. It can only be 
imposed, in regard to other crimes, upon the traitor to his country in foreign wars, 
upon the parricide, upon the murderer by treachery, with premeditation or for 
profit, upon kidnappers, highwaymen, pirates, and those guilty of grave oifenses of 
the military order.* 

Art. 24. No criminal rase shall have more than three instances. No person, 
whether acquitted or condemned, shail be tried again for the same offense. Ver- 
dicts of not proven are abolished. 

Art. 25. Correspondence sent through the mails is inviolable. The violation of 
this guaranty is an offense which the law shall punish severely. 

Art. 26. In time of peace no soldier may demand quarters, supjjlies, or other 
real or personal service, withovit the consent of the proprietor. In time of war he 
may do so, but only in the manner prescribed by the law. 

Art. 27. Private property cannot be occupied without the consent of the owner, 
except in cases of public utility, and with previous com])ensation. The law shall 
prescribe the authority which shall make the expropriation in such cases, and the 
requisite for its exercise. 

Religious corporations and institutions, of whatever character, denomination, 
duration or object, and civil corporations which are under the patronage, direction 
or administration of the former, or of the ministers of any sect, shall have no legal 
capacity to acquire the ownership of or to administer any other real estate than the 
buildings which are destined immediately and directly to the service or purpose of 
such corporations or institutions. Neither shall they acquire or administer funds 
secured by real estate. 

Civil corporations and institutions, other than as above prohibited, may acquire 
and administer, besides the foregoing buildings, such real estate and funds charged 
upon it, as may be required for their support and for the purpose for which they 
exist, but subject to the requisites and limitations which may be prescribed by the 
federal law which the Congress of the Union may enact for the purpose.* 

Art. 28. There shall be no monopolies of any kind, whether governmental or 
private, nor prohibitions whatever even if under cover of protection to industry. 
The Government's exclusive right to coin money, and manage the postal service, 
and the privileges which, for a liniited time, the law may concede to inventors or 
improvers of inventions, are exceptions to this rule. 

Art. 29. In cases of invasion, grave disturbance of the public peace, or any other 
emergency which may place society ir. grave danger, the President of the Republic, 
and no one else, shall have the power to ssupend, with the advice of the council 
of ministers and with the approval of the Congress of the Union, and, in the recess 
thereof, of the Permanent Committee, the guaranties established by this Constitution, 
excepting those relating to the life of man; but such suspension, which in no case 
shall be confined in its effects to a particular individual, shall be made by means of 
a general order, or decree, and only for a limited time. 

If the suspension takes place during the session of Congress, this body shall 
concede the authorizations which it may deem necessary in order that the Executive 
may properly meet the situation. If the suspension takes place during the recess, 
the Permanent Committee shall, without delay, call Congress to assemble in order 
that it may make the concession. 

SECTION II. 

Me.vicans. 
Art. 30. Mexicans are: 

I. All those born, within or without the Republic, of Mexican parents. 

II. Foreigners naturalized in conformity with the laws of the Federation. 

III. Foreigners who acquire real estate in the Republic, or have Mexican children, 
if they do not declare their intention to retain their nationality of origin. 

Art. 31. It is the obligation of every Mexican: I. To defend the independence, 
the territory, the honor, the rights and the interests of his country. II. To render 



*.\mendment of 14 May, 1901. 



CONSTITUTION. 



339 



tis services in the Army or National Guard, according to the respective organic 
laws. III. To contribute to the public expenses, as well of the Federation as of 
the State and Municipality in which he lives, in the proportional and equitable man- 
tier which the laws shall prescribe.* 

Art. 32. Mexicans shall be preferred under equal circumstances to foreigners, 
for all public employments, charges, or commissions, when the citizenship is not 
indispensable. Laws shall be enacted to improve the condition of industrious Mexi- 
cans, by rewarding those who distinguish themselves in any science or art, promoting 
labor, and founding colleges and manual training schools. 

SECTION III. 

Foreigners. 

Art. 33. Foreigners are those who do not possess the qualifications determined 
in article 30. They have a right to the guaranties established by Section I, Title I, 
of the present Constitution, except that in all cases the Government has the right to 
expel pernicious foreigners. They are under obligation to contribute to the public 
expenses in the manner which the laws may provide, and to obey and respect the 
institutions, laws, and authorities of the country, subjecting themselves to the deci- 
.sions of the tribjnals, ^vithout power to seek other protection than that which the 
laws concede to Mexican citizens. 

SECTION IV. 

Mexican citizens. 

Art. 34. Citizens of the Republic are all those who, in addition to the quality 
-of Mexicans, have the following qualifications: 

I. To have completed the age of eighteen years if they are married, or of twenty- 
-one if not married. 

II. To have an honest means of livelihood. 
Art. 35. The prerogatives of the citizens are: 

I. To vote at popular elections. 

II. To be eligible for any office or position of popular election, and to be _ ap- 
pointed to any other employment or commission, if they have the qualifications 
-established by law. 

III. To associate together to discuss the political affairs of the country. 

IV. To take arms in the Army or National Guard in defense of the Republic 
.and its institutions, in the terms prescribed by law.* 

V. To exercise in all cases the right of petition. 

Art. 36. It shall be the duty of every citizen of the Republic: 

I. To register in the list of the inhabitants of the municipality in which he 
lives, stating the property which he owns, if any, or the industry, profession, or 

'labor by which he subsists. 

II. To enlist in the National Guard. 

III. To vote at popular elections in the district to which he belongs. 

IV. To fill the federal ofiiceE to which he may be elected, and which in no case 
•shall be gratuitous. 

Art. 37. The character of citizen is lost: 

I. By naturalization in a foreign country. 

II. By ofKcially serving the government of another country or accepting its 
■ decorations, titles, or employment without previous permission from the Federal 

Congress; excepting literary, scientific, and humanitarian titles, which may be 
.accepted freely. 

Art. 38. The law shall determine the cases and the form in which the rights 
of citizenship may be lost or suspended, and the manner in which they may be 
-regained. 

title II. 

SECTION 1. 

National sovereignty and form of government. 

Art. 39. The national sovereignty is vested essentially and originally in the 
people. All public power emanates from the people, and is instituted for their 
"benefit. The people have at all times the inalienable right to alter or modify the 
form of thier government. 

Art. 40. It is the will of the Mexican people to constitute themselves into a 
democratic. Federal, representative Republic, consisting of States, free and sovereign 
in all that concerns their internal government, but vmited in a federation according 
to the principles of this fundamental law. 

Art. 41. The people exercise their sovereignty through the Federal powers in 
the matters belonging to the Union, and through those of the States in the rnatters 
relating to the internal regime of the latter. This power shall be exercised in the 
manner respectively established by the Constitutions, both Federal and State. The 
latter shall in no case contravene the stipulations of the Federal Compact. 



'Amendment of 10 June, 1S98. 



340 MEXICO. 



SECTION II. 

Integral parts of the Federation and luitional territory. 

Art. 42. The national territory comprises the integral parts of the Federation 
and the adjacent islands in both oceans. 

Art. 43. The integral parts of the Federation are: The States of Aguascalientes, 
Campeche, Coahuila. Colinia, Chia|)as. Chihualuia, Durango, riuanajiiato. (luerrero, 
Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan. Moielos. Niieva Leon, Oaxaca, Puebla, Quere- 
taro, San Luis Potosi, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala, Vallc de 
Mexico, \'cracruz, Yucatan, Zacatecas, the Territory of Liaja falifornia (Lower Cali- 
fornia), the Territory of Tepic (formed from the seventh Canton of Jalisco), and 
the Territory of Qui'ilana Ron.* 

The territory of Ouintana Roo shall be formed froni the eastern portion of the 
peninsula of Yucatan, which latter shall be bounded by a dividing line which, 
starting from the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico, follows the arch of llie meridian 
87° 32' (longitude west fr'jm Greenwich), to its intersection with the 21st parallel, 
and thence continues until its juncture with the parallel which i)asses through the 
tower south of Chemax, twenty kilometers to the east of this jioint; and proceed- 
ing thence to the vertex of the angle formed by the lines which divide the States 
of Yucatan and Campeche, near Put, thence southward to the parallel forming the 
boundary between the Republics of Mexico and Guatemala. 

Art. 44. The States of Aguascalientes, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, 
Mexico, Puebla, Queretaro, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tamaulipas, and the Territory of Lower 
California, shall preserve the limits wliich they now have. 

Art. 45. The .States of Coliraa and Tlaxcala shall i^reserve in their new character 
of States the limits which they had as Terricories of the Federation. 

.\rt. 46. The State of the Valley of Mexico shall consist of the territory con- 
stituting at present the Federal District, but it shall not be a State until after the 
supreme Federal Powers move to some other plare. 

Art. 47. The State of Nuevo Leon and Coahuila shall comprise the territory 
formerly belonging tc the two separate States of which it now consists, except a 
part of the ];on.'in/ii Hacienda, wliich shall be added to Zacatecas, exactly as it was 
before its annexation to Coahuila. 

Art. 48. The States of Guanajuato, Jalisco, Michoacan, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi, 
Tabasco, \'era Cr\i:i, Yucatan, and Zacatecas shall recover the extent and limits 
which they had on the thirty-first of December, eighteen hundred and fifty-two, with 
the alterations established in the following article. 

Art. 49. The town of Contepec, now belonging to Guanajuato, shall be annexed to 
Michoacan. The municipality of Ahualulco, belonging to Zacatecas, shall be 
annexed to San Luis Potosi. The municipalities of Ojo Caliente and San Francisco 
de los Adames, belonging to San Luis, as well as the towns of Nueva Tlaxcala and 
San Andres del Teul, belonging to Jalisco, shall be annexed to Zacatecas. The de- 
partment of Tuxpam shall continue to form a part of Vera Cruz. The canton of 
Huimangviillo, belonging to Vera Cruz, shall be annexed to Tabasco. 

titl;-: rii. 
DIVISION OF POWERS. 

Art. 50. The supreme power of the Federation is divided for its exercise into 

legislative, executive, and judicial. Two or more of these powers shall never be 

united in one person or corporation, nor shall the legislative power be vested in one 
individual. 

SECTION I. 

Of the Legislative Power. 

Art. 51. The Legislative Power of the Nation shall be vested in a General Con- 
gress, which shall be divided into two Chambers, one of Deputies and the other of 
Senators.f 

PARAGRAPH I. 

Cf the Election and Installation of the Congress. 

Art. 52. The Chamber of Deputies shall be composed of representatives of the 
Nation, elected entirely anew every two years, by the Mexican citizens. | 

Art. 53. There shall be elected one proprietary Deputy for each sixty thousand 
inhabitants or fraction over twenty thousand, according to the general census of 
the Federal District and that of each State and Territory. The population of any 
State or Territory which is less than that herein fixed, will, nevertheless, elect one 
proprietary Deputy. f 

Art. 54. For each representative there shall be elected one substitute. 



*Amendment of 24 November, 1902. 
t Amendment of 13 November. 1S74. 
± Amendment of 18 December, 1901. 



CONSTITUTION. 341 



Art. 55. The election of representatives shall be indirect in the first degree, 
and by secret ballot, in the manner which the electoral law shall provide. 

Art. 56. Representatives shall have the following qualifications: To be Mexican 
citizens in the enjoyment of their rights; to be twenty-five years of age on the 
day of the opening of the session; to be residents of the State or Territory in which 
the election is held, and not to belong to the ecclesiastical state. Residence is not 
lost by absence in the discharge of a public office of popular election. 

^Vrt. 57. The positions of Deputy and Senator are incompatible with any com- 
mission or employment of the Union for which a salarj' is received. 

Art. 58. Proprietary' Deputies and Senators, from the day of their election until 
the end of their term, cannot accept any commission or employment within the 
nomination of the Federal Executive, to which a salary is attached, without the 
previous license of their respective Chamber.s. The same requisite is necessarj' for the 
Substitute Deputies and Senators during service.* 

■ A. The Senate shall be composed of two Senators for each State and two for 
the Federal District. The election of Senators shall be indirect in the first degree. 
The Legislature of each State shall declare elected him who shall obtain the absolute 
niajority of the votes cast, or shall choose between those who shall have obtained 
a relative majority, under the terms prescribed by the electoral law. For each 
Senator a Substitute {suplente) shall be elected. 

B. The Senate shall be renewed one-half every two years. The Senators chosen 
for the second class {en segundo iitgar), shall cease at the end of the first two 
years, and thereafter the older ones (y en !o sncesive los mas antiguos). 

C. To be eligible as Senator the same qualifications are required as for Deputy, 
except that of age, which shall be full thirty years on the day of the opening of the 
sessions.* 

Art. 59. The Deputies and Senators shall be inviolable for their opinions ex- 
pressed in the discharge of their functions, and shall never be called to account for 
them.* 

Art. 60. Each Chamber shall be the judge of the election of its members, and 
shall decide any questions which arise in regard thereto.* 

Art. 61. The Chambers cannot open their sessions nor exercise their trust without 
the concurrence, in the Senate, of two-thirds, and in the Chamber of Deputies, 
of more than one-half, of the total number of their members; but those present of 
both Chambers shall convene on the day appointed by law, and compel the attend- 
ance of absent members, under the penalties provided by law.* 

Art. 62. The Congress shall hold two ordinary sessions each year; the first shall 
begin on the 16th day of September and end on the 15th day of December, but may 
be prolonged (prorrogable) for thirty' business days {dias tittles) ; and the second, 
which may be prolonged for fifteen business days, shall begin on the 1st of April and 
end on the last day of the month of May.* 

Art. 63. At the opening of the sessions of the Congress the President of the 
Union shall be present and make a speech in which he shall give information of the 
state of the country. The president of the Congress shall reply in general terms. 

Art. 64. Every resolution of the Congress shall have the character of a law 
or of a decree (iendrd el cardcter de una ley 6 decreto). The laws and decrees shall 
be communicated to the Executive, signed by the Presidents of both Chambers, and 
by a secretary of each of them, and shall be promulgated in this form: "El Con- 
greso de los Estados-Unidcs Mexicanos, decreta": "The Congress of the Mexican 
United States decrees" (text of the law or decree).* 

P.\RAGR.\PH II. 

Origin and Formation of the Laws. 

Art. 65. The right to originate legislation belotigs: 

I. To the President of the Union. 

II. To the members of Congress. 

III. To the legislatures of the States. 

Art. 66. Bills introduced by the President of the Republic, or by the legislatures 
or deputations of the States, shall immediately be referred to the proper committee. 
Those introduced by Deputies or Senators shall be subject to the procedure established 
by the rules. 

Art. 67. Every bill (proyecto de ley \d de decreto) for a law or for a decree which 
shall be rejected by the Chamber of its origin before passing to the Revising Cham- 
ber, cannot be again presented during the sessions of the j'ear.* 

Art. 68. The second period of sessions shall be devoted with preference over all 
other matters, to the making of the necessary appropriations for the support of 
the Government in the following fiscal year, the levying of the taxes necessary to 
meet the expenses, and the examination of the accounts ot the past year submitted by 
the Executive. 

Art. 69. The day before the last of the first session, the Executive shall present 
to the Chamber of Deputies the estimates (proyecto de presupuestos) for the next 

*Amendment of 13 November, 1874. See in connection with this, clauses C, D and 
E of Art. 71, as amended on the saaie date. 



342 MRXico. 

following yf?ar, and the accounts for the previous year. Rotli shall [lass to a Coni- 
niitte of five Representatives, appointed on the same day, which shall have the 
obligation of examining both documents and presenting a report on them, at the 
second day of the second session (en la .wguiuln scsion del segtiiulo periodo).* 

Art. 70. The framing of laws and decrees may begin indiscriminately in either 
vi the two Chambers, with the exception of Bills concerning loans ilos proyectos 
■que versaren sobre emprestitos), taxes or duties, or the recruiting of troo; s, all 
of which must be first discussed in the Chamber of Deputies.* 

Art. 7\. Every project of law or of decree, the resolution of which does not be- 
long exclusively to one of the Chambers, shall be discussed successively in both, 
observing the rules of debate in respect to the form, time (ivicrvclos) and "nethod 
of procedure in the discussion and casting of votes. t 

A. Upon approval of a bill in the Chamber of its origin, it shall pass for discus- 
sion to the other Chamber. If the latter approves it, it shall be remitted to the 
Eexecutive who. if he has no observations to make, will publish it immediately. 

P.. Every bill shall be considered as approved by the Executive, if not returned 
with his objections {obserx-acioncs) to the Chamber whrre it originated, within ten 
business days {dias utiles), provided, that within such term the Congress shall not 
have adjourned or suspended its sessions, in which event the bill shall be returned 
on the first business day on which it is in session. 

C. The bill for a law or decree which has been rejected in whole or in part by 
the Executive, shall be returned with his objections to the Chamber of its origin. 
It shall be discussed anew by this Chamber, and if it should be confirmed by an 
^absolute majority of votes, it shall pass again to the revisory Chamber. If it should 
~be sanctioned by the latter by an absolute majority of votes, the bill becomes a 
law or decree, and shall return to the Executive for his promulgation. The voting 
upon a law or decree shall be by roll-call and recorded (nominales). 

D. If any bill for a law or decree should be rejected in its entirety by the Cham- 
ber of Revision, it shall return to that of its origin with the observaiions which the 
former shall have made to it. If upon examination de novo, it should be approved 
by tlie absolute majorit)' of the members present, it shall return to tiic Chamber which 
rejected it, which shall take it again into consideration, and if it should approve 
it "by the same majority, it shall pass to the Executive for the purpose mentioned 
in fraction A; but if disapproved, it cannot be again presented until the following 
sessions. 

E. If a bill for a law or decree should be rejected only in part, or modified or 
amended by the revisory Chamber, the new discussion in the Chamber of its origin 
shall be confined solely to the parts rejected, or to the reforms or amendments, 
without altering in any manner the Articles approved. If the additions or aniend- 
ments made by the revisory Chamber should be approved by the absolute majority 
of the votes present in the Chamber of its origin, the entire bill shall pass to the 
Executive for his action under fraction A. But if the additions or amendments 
made by the revisory Chamber should be rejected by the majority of votes in the 
Chamber of its origin, they shall return to the former in order that it may take 
into consideration the reasons of the latter, and if by an absolute majority of the 
votes present, said additions or amendments should be rejected upon this second re- 
vision, the bill, so far as it shall have been approved by both Chambers, shall i)ass 
to the Executive for his action under fraction A. I'ut if the revisory Chamber 
should insist, by the absolute majority of the votes present, upon said additions or 
amendments, the entire bill cannot be again presented until the following sessions, 
unless both Chambers concur, by an absolute majority of their members present, 
that the law or decree shall be enacted with only the Articles approved, and that 
those added or amended shall be reserved for their examination and vote at the 
following sessions. 

F. In the interpretation, amendment or repeal (reforma 6 derogarirn) of laws or 
decrees, the same procedure Khali be observed as is established for their enact- 
ment. 

G. Both Chambers shall convene (residirdn( in the same place, and cannot remove 
to another, unless they shall previously agree upon such removal (traslacinn) and 
upon the time and manner of carrying it into effect, designating the same point for 
the convening of both Chambers. But if the two Chambers agree upon the removal, 
and differ in regard to the time, manner or place, the Executive shall end the differ- 
ence, selecting one of the alternatives (extremos) in dispute. Neither Chamber shall 
suspend its sessions for more than three days, without the consent of the other. 

H. When the General Congress shall convene in extraordinary sessions, it shall 
occupy itself exclusively with the object or objects designated in the proclamation 
convening it; and if it shall not have finished them by the day on which the 
ordinary sessions shoidd begin, it shall nevertheless adjourn, leaving the pending 
matters to be treated in the latter. 

The Executive of the Union cannot interpose objections (hacer obserraciones) to 
the resolutions of Congress, when it prorogues it sessions, or exercises the functions 
of an electoral body or of a jury.* 



*Amendment of 13 November, 1874. 

fThe Reglamento de Debates a;overnin<> both Chambers, is that passed 20 Decem- 
ber, 1897, which went into effect 1 September, 1898. 



CONSTITUTION. 343 

PARAGRAPH III. 

Powers of Congress. 

Art. 72. The Congress has power: „ , , ^, . . .• .u 

I. To admit new States or Territories into the tederal Union, mccrporating them 

in the nation. , , ,, , , ■ r • • ^ 

II To turn Territories into States when they shall have a population ot eignty 

thousand inhabitants and the necessary elements to provide for their political ex- 

istciicc. 

III. To form new States within the limits of the existing ones, for which pur- 
pose it shall be necessary: 1. That the fraction or fractions seeking to be erected 
into a State shall have a population of at least one hundred and twenty thousand 
inhabitants: 2. That it be proven before the Congress that they possess the elements 
sufficient to provide for their political existence; 3. That the Legislatures of the 
States whose territory is involved be heard concerning the convenience or incon- 
venience of the formation of the new State, and they shall be obliged to render 
their report within six months, counted from the day that the respective communica- 
tion was forwarded to them; 4. That the Executive of the Federation be likewise 
heard, who shall transmit his report within seven days, counted from the date on 
which he shall be requested for it; S. That the erection of the new State be adopted 
by the vote of two-thirds of the Deputies and Senators present in their respective 
Chambers; 6. That the resolution of the Congress be ratified by the majority of the 
Legislatures of the States, witli a copy of the record before them; provided, that 
the Legislatures of the States whose territory is involved shall have given their 
consent; 7. If the Legislatures of the States whose territory is involved shall not 
have given their consent, the ratification mentioned in the foregoing fraction, shall 
be given by two-thirds of the Legislatures of the other States.* 

IV. To settle finally the limits of the States, terminating the differences _ which 
may arise between them relative to the demarcation of their respective territories, 
except when the differences are of judicial character. 

V. To change the residence of the supreme powers of the Federation. _ 

VI. To legislate in respect to all matters concerning the Federal District and 
Territories. t 

VII. To impose taxes necessary to meet the Budget. 

VII. To establish the bases upon which the Executive may make loans on the 
credit of the nation; to approve said loans and to recognize and order the payment 
of the national debt. 

IX. To enact laws fixing the duties to be levied on foreign commerce, and pre- 
vent, by general provisions, onerous restrictions from being established on the com- 
merce between the States. . . 

X. To enact codes of mining and commerce, the latter including banking insti- 
tutions, obligatory throughout the RepublicJ 

XL To create or abolish Federal oiifices, and to fix, increase, or decrease their 
salaries. 

XII. Abolished. See B (of this article) IL 
XIIL Abolished. See B I. 

XIV. To declare war, upon examination of the facts submitted by the Executive. 

XV. To regulate the manner in which letters of marque may be issued; to enact 
laws according to which the prizes on sea and land shall be adjudged good or bad; 
and to frame the maritime law of peace and war. 

XVI. Abolished. See B III. 

XVII. Abolished. See B III. 

XVIII. To raise and maintain the army and navy of the Union, and regulate 
their organization and service. 

XIX. To make rules for the organization, armament, and discipline of the national 
guard, reserving respectively to the citizens who compose it the appointment of the 
commanders and officers, and to the States the power of instructing it in conformity 
with the discipline prescribed by said regulations. 

XX. Abolished. See B IV. 

XXI. To enact laws in regard to citizenship, naturalization, colonization, emigra- 
tion, immigration and the general health of the cotintry.§ 

XXII. To enact laws in regard to general ways of communication and in regard 
to posts and post offices; to define, to determine what are the waters under federal 
jurisdiction, and to enact laws upon the use and utilization of the same.§§ 

XXIII. To establish mints, regulate the value and kinds of the national coin, 
determine the value of foreign coins, and adopt a general system of weights and 
measures. 



*Frac. Ill of Art. 72, as amended by the law of 13 November, 1874. 

t Amendment of 31 October, 1901. 

^Amendment of 14 December, 1883. 

§Amendment of 27 October, 1908. The present law in regard to citizenship and 
naturalization is the Ley do Extranjeria, of 28 May, 1886, herein published.^ Since 
the above amendment, there has been enacted a general law regulating emigration, 
immigration and general health, of 25 February, 1909, and the Reglamento del 
Servicio c Inspeccion de Immigrantes, of the same date. 

§§Amendment of June 20, 1908. 



344 MEXICO. 

XXI\'. To make ruks for the occupation and sale of public lanJs and the |)rices 
thereof. 

XXV. To grant pardons for offenses subject to federal jurisdiction. 

XXVI. To grant rewards or recompenses for eminent services rendered to the 
country or to Ininianity.* 

XX VII. To extend for tliirty working days the first period of its ordinary 
sessions. 

XX\'I11. To make rules for its internal government and take the necessary 
measures to compel the attendance of absent Deputies and punish the faults or omis- 
sions of those present. 

XXIX. To enact the laws governing the General Auditing Department. (See C 
III and A III.) 

XXX. To enact all laws which may be necessary and proper to enforce the fore- 
going powers and all others granted by this Constitution to the authorities of the 
Union. 

A. The exclusive powers of the Chamber of Deputies are: 

I. To constitute itself into an Electoral College in order to exercise the powers 
prescribed by law in respect to the election of President and Vice-President of the 
Republic, Magistrates of the Supreme Court of Justice, and Senators for the Federal 
District.! 

II. To consider (.calificar) and decide upon the resignations .ind leaves of ab- 
sence of the President and Vice-President of the Republic, and upon the resignations 
of the Magistrates of the Supreme Court of Justice. J 

HI. To oversee by means of an investigating committee of its own number, the 

faithful discharge of the functions of the General Auditing Department. (Con- 
tad iiria Mayor). 

IV. To appoint the superior officers and other employes of the same. 

V. To constitute itself a jury of impeachment (jurado de acusacion) for the 
higher functionaries mentioned in Art. 103 of this Constitution. 

\'I. To examine the account which the Executive shall present annually, approve 
the annual estimates of expenses, and to initiate the taxes {contribuciones) which 
in its judgment should be levied to cover them. 

D. The exclusive powers of the Senate are: 

I. To approve the treaties and diplomatic conventions w'hich the Executive may 
conclude with foreign powers. 

II. To ratify the appointments which the President of the Republic may make 
of ministers, diplomatic agents, consuls general, superior employes of the Treasury, 
colonels and other superior chiefs of the army and national fleet, in the terms pro- 
vided by law. 

III. To authorize the Executive to permit the departure of national troops out 
of the limits of the Republic, the passage of foreign troops through the national 
territory, and the stay of vessels of another power, for more than one month in 
the waters of the Republic. 

IV. To give its consent for the Executive to dispose of the national guard out- 
side of its respective States and Territories, determining the necessary force. 

V. To declare, when the constitutional Executive and Legislative Powers of a 
State shall have disappeared, that the case has arisen for appointing a Provisional 
Governor for it, who shall call elections accordmg to the constitutional laws of such 
State. The appointment of the Governor shall be made bj' the Federal Executive^ 
with the approbation of the Senate, or during its recesses, with tliat of the Perma- 
nent Commission. Said official shall not be elected constitutional Governor in the 
elections which may be Iield by virtue of the call which he shall issue. 

VI. To settle the political questions which may arise between the Powers of a 
.State, whenever any of them shall apply to the Senate for that purpose, or when 
by reason of such questions, the constitutional order shall be interrupted through a 
conflict of arms. In such case, the Senate shall declare its judgment, in accord 
with the General Constitution of the Republic and with that of the State. The law 
shall regulate the exercise, of this and the foregoing powers. 

VII. To constitute itself a Jury of Judgment {erigirse en jurado de sentcucia} 
in accordance with Art. 105 of the Constitution. 

C. Each one of the Chambers may, without the intervention of the other: 

I. Dictate economic resolutions relati 'e to its interior regimen. 

II. Communicate between themselves and with the Executive, through committees 
of its own body. 

III. Appoint tlie employes of its clerical force and provide for the internal regu- 
lation of the same. 

IV. Issue proclamation {coir.'ocatoria) for extraordinary elections in order to fill 
vacancies in its membership. § 



*.\mendment of 2 June, 1882. 

t.Amendment of 6 May, 1904, wliich for the first time created the office of Vice- 
President under the t)resent Constitution. The Law of 24 May, 1904, treats of the 
functions of the Chamber as an electoral body. 

J Amendment of 6 May, 1904. 

§Amendments of 13 November, 1874. 



CONSTITUTION. 345 

PARAGRAPH IV. 

Of the Permanent Deputation. 

Art. 73. During the recesses of the Congress of the Union, there shall be a 
Permanent Committee, composed of twenty-nine members, of whom fifteen shall be 
Deputies and fourteen Senators, named by their respective Chambers on the eve 
of the close of the sessions.* 

Art. 74. The attributes of the Permanent Deputation, besides others conferred' 
in this Constitution, are the following: 

I. To give its consent for the use of the national guard, in the cases men- 
tioned in Art. 72, frac. XX. 

II. To issue of its own motion, or on that of the Executive, he being heard 
in the first instance, the proclamation for the Congress, or only one Chamber of it, 
to convene in extraordinary session ; in both cases the vote of two-thirds of the 
individuals present being necessar3'. The proclamation shall state the object or 
objects of the extraordinary session.* 

III. To approve the appointments referred to in Art. 85, frac. III. 

IV. To receive the oath of the President of the Republic, and of the members 
of the Supreme Court of Justice, in the cases provided by this Constitution. f 

V. To report upon all unfinished business on the calendars, so that the follow- 
ing Legislature may immediately have material upon which to work. 

SECTION II. 

Executii'e Power. 

Art. 75. The exercise of the supreme executive power of the Union is vested 
in a single individual, who shall be called "President of the United Mexican States." 

Art. 76. The election of President shall be indirect in the first degree, and by 
secret ballot, in such manner as may be prescribed by the electoral law. 

Art. 77. In order to be President it is required to be: a Mexican citizen by 
birth, in the exercise of his ri.ghts, or thirty-five years of age completed at the time 
of the election, to belong to no ecclesiastic order (estado), and to reside in the 
country at the time of the election. 

Art. 78. The President and the Vice-President of the Republic shall enter 
upon the exercise of their functions on the 1st of December, and shall continue in 
their office six years. ± 

Art. 79. The electors who choose the President of the Republic, shall also on 
the same day and in the same manner, elect as Vice-President a citizen having the 
same qualifications (en quicn concurran las condiciones} as required for President 
by Art. 77. _ 

The Vice-President of the Republic shall be President ex officio (nato) of the 
Senate, with the right of debate (con zws), but without a vote, except in cases of a 
tie (en caso de empate). The Vice-President may, however, hold any other office- 
(desempeiiar algi'in encargo) within the appointment of the Executive, and in such 
event, as well as when he is otherwise in default (lo mis)no que en sits otras faltas) 
shall be substituted in the presidencj' of the Senate in the manner which may be- 
prescribed by law. J 

Art. 80. When the President of the Republic shall not be present on the day 
designated by law to take possession of his office, when he shall be in absolute de- 
fault, or when leave is _ granted him to withdraw from his functions, the Vice- 
President of the Republic shall assume the exercise of the Executive Power, by 
virtue of law (par ministerio de la ley) without the necessity of a new protest. 

If the default of the President shall be absolute, the Vice-President shall substitute 
him until _the end of the term for which he was elected, and in the other cases until 
the President shall present himself to discharge his functions. 

Art. 81. If at the beginning of a constitutional term, neither the President nor 
Vice-President elect shall present himself, or if the election should not be held and 
declared on the 1st of December, the President whose term has expired shall never- 
theless cease to act, and the Secretary of State for Foreign Relations shall at once 
assume the Executive Power in the character of President ad interim, and if there 
should be no such Secretary, or if he should be prevented from doing so, one of the 
other Secretaries, following the order of the law which establishes their number. 

The same procedure shall be observed where, in case of the absolute or temporary 
default of the President, the Vice-President does not present himself; when leave 
shall be granted him to withdraw from his functions, if he be discharging them 



*Amendment of 13 November, 1874. 

tit is interesting to note that the religious oath was entirely abolished in all mat- 
ters by the Reform Law of 25 September and 4 October, 1873; the first providing 
that "the smiple promise to speak the truth and to fulfill the obligations contracted 
shall take the place of the religious oath, with its effects and penalties." The later 
law prescribes the forms of affirmation (t>rotesta) to be taken by the President and 
other principal officials. The effective words are: "Yo protesto."' This affirmation is- 
called la protesta de ley." Falsely taken, it is perjury. See Art. 130, frac. IV. 

TAmendment of 6 May, 1904. 



o4() MEXICO. 

and if in the course of a term, an absolute default of both functionaries sliould 
occur. 

In the event of the absolute default of the President and of the Vice-President, 
the Congress of the Union, or during its recesses, the Permanent Committee, shall 
at once issue a call for extraordinary elections. 

When the default of one and tlie other functionary shall occur in the last year 
of a term, such call shall not be made, but the Secretary who is exercising the 
Executive Power shall continue in its exercise until jiossession is taken by the new 
President, or bj' the person wlio substitutes him in accordance with the foregoing 
precepts. 

The citizens chosen in tlic cxtraonlinary elections shall take possession of their 
offices immediately upon the announcement of the results, and shall exercise them 
for the time which remains until the expiration of the constitutional period. 

When one of the Secretaries of State sliall assume the Executive Power, lie shall 
exercise it without the necessity of protest, until he makes it {cntrctanto la otorga).* 

Art. 82. The office of PrcsideiU and Vice-President of the Republic can only be 
resigned for grave cause, which shall be passed upon by the Chamber of Deputies, 
before which the resignation shall be presented.* 

Art. 83. The President, upon talving possession of his office, shall make before 
the Congress, or in its recesses before the Permanent Committee, the following affir- 
mation iprotesta) : "I affirm {protesio) without any reservation that I will keep 
and cause to be kept (guardar y liaccr guardar) the Political Constitution of the 
Mexican United States, together with its additions and amendments, the Laws of the 
Reform, and all others which shall be enacted in pursuance thereof {que de aquclla 
amanen) and that I will discharge loyally and patriotically the office of President 
of the Republic which the people have conferred on me, in all things looking to the 
welfare and prosperity of the Union." 

The Vice-President shall make the affirmation at the same session, in like 
terms, to discharge the Vice-Presidency, and if the event occurs, the Presidency 
of the Republic; but if he should be prevented from making the affirmation at that 
session, he shall make it at another.* 

Art. 84. The President and the Vice-President of the Republic cannot absent 
themselves from the national territory without the permission of tlie Chamber of 
Deputies.* 

Art. 85. The powers and duties of the President are the following: 

I. To promulgate and execute the laws passed by the Congress of the Union, 
providing, within the Executive sphere, for their exact observance. 

II. To appoint and remove freely the Secretaries of State, to remove the diplo- 
matic agents and superior officers of the treasury, and to appoint and remove freely 
the other federal officials wliose appointment or removal is not otherwise provided for 
in the Constitution or the laws. 

III. To appoint, with the approval of Congress, and, in its recess, of the Per- 
manent Committee, ministers, diplomatic agents, and consuls-general. 

IV. To appoint, with the approval of Congress, colonels and other superior officers 
of the national army and navy, and superior officers of the treasury. 

V. To appoint all other officers of the national army and navj', according to the 
i!aws. 

VI. To dispose of the permanent land and sea forces for the security and defense 
of the Federation. 

VII. To dispose of the national guard for the same purposes, in the manner 
provided by article 72, clause XX. 

VIII. To declare war in the name of the United Mexican States, after the pas- 
sago of the i-.ecessary law by the Congress of the Union. 

IX. To grant letters of marque, upon the bases fixed by the Congress. 

X. To conduct diplomatic negotiations and to make treaties with foreign powers, 
submitting them for ratification to the Federal Congress. 

XI. To receive ministers and other envoys from foreign powers. 

XII. To call, upon resolution of the Permanent Committee, an extra session 
of Congress. 

XIII. To give the judicial power the assistance which may be necessary for the 
free exercise of its functions. 

XIV. _ To open all classes of ports, establish maritime and frontier custom-houses 
and designate their location. 

Xy. To grant, according to law, pardons to criminals sentenced for offenses 
within the jurisdiction of the Federal tribunals. 

XVI. To grant exclusive privileges for a limited time and in accordance with the 
laws, to discoverers, inventors or to the improvers of any branch of industry.f 
^ Art. 86. For the transaction of the business of the executive department of the 
Federation there shall be the number of secretaries which the Congress may fix by 
law, said law to provide also for the distribution of business among the different 
secretaries. 

Art. 87. No person shall be appointed Secretary who is not a Mexican citizen by 
birth, in tlie exercise of jiis rights, and twenty-five years old. 



* Amendment of 6 May, 1904. 
j-Amendnu-nt of 2 June. 1882. 



CONSTITUTION. 



347 



Art 88 All rules, decrees, and orders of the President shall be signed by _ the 
Secretary of the department to which the subject belongs. Without this requisite 
they shall not be obeyed. , . r ^, n ^ • j 

Art 89 The Secretaries shall, as soon as the sessions of the first period are 
opened, render an account to the Congress of the state of their respective depart- 
ments. 

SECTION III. 

Judicial Power. 

Art. 90. The judicial power of the Federation is vested in a supreme court and 
in the district and circuit courts. , . , „ , j i- ^r^ u 

Art. 91. The Supreme Court of Justice shall be composed of fifteen members, 
who shall sit en Banc or in Divisions {funcionara en Tribunal plena 6 en Solas), 
in the manner prescribed by law.* . j ^, • 

Art. 92. The justices of the supreme court shall serve for six years, and their 
election shall be indirect in the first degree, in the manner established by the elec- 
toral law. , , . . ^ . ^. J. ^, 

Art. 93. No person shall be eligible to the position of justice of the supreme 
court who, in the judgment of the electors, is not learned in the science of _ law, 
thirty-five years of age, and a Mexican citizen by birth, in the exercise of his rights. 

Art. 94. The justices of the supreme court shall, on entering upon the exercise 
of their functions, take an oath before Congress, and, in its recesses, before the Per- 
manent Committee, in the following form: "Do you swear to perform loyally and 
patriotically the functions of justice of the supreme Court of justice, which the people 
have conferred upon you, in conformity with the Constitution, having always in view 
the welfare and prosperity of the Union?" 

Art. 95. No resignation of the position of justice of the supreme court shall be 
admitted, except for grave cause, approved by the Congress, to whom the resigna- 
tion shall be tendered. In the recesses of the Congress the power to act on this 
matter belongs to the Permanent Committee. 

Art. 96. The law shall establish and organize the circuit and district courts, and 
the Ministerio Publico of the Federation. The officials of the Ministerio Publico 
and the Attorney General (Procurador General) of the Republic, who shall be its- 
principal officers, shall be appointed by the President.* 

Art. 97. The Federal tribunals shall take cognizance of: • , j 

I All controversies which may arise in regard to the compliance with and ap- 
plication of the Federal laws, except in the case that such _ application only aflects. 
the interests of private persons, in which event the local judges and tribunals of 
the common order of the States, of the Federal District and of the Territory of 
Lower California, shall be competent to hear and decide them.t 

II. All cases pertaining to maritime law. 

III. All cases to which the Federation may be a party. 

IV. All cases which may arise between two or more States. 

V. All cases which may arise between a State and one or more citizens of another 
State. . . . .^, J. . 

VI. All civil or criminal cases that may arise out of treaties with foreign powers. 

VII. All cases concerning diplomatic agents and consuls. _ 

Art. 98. The supreme court shall have original jurisdiction of controversies which 
may arise between one State and another, and of those to which the Union may be 
a party. , . - . . ,. 

Art. 99. The supreme court shall also have power to settle questions of jurisdic- 
tion between Federal tribunals, between these tribunals and those of the States, or 
between those of one State and those of another. 

Art. 100. In all the other cases mentioned in article 97, the supreme court shall 
be either a court of appeals, or a court of last resort, as may be defined by the law 
regulating the jurisdiction of the circuit and district courts. _ _ 

Art. 101. The tribunals of the Federation shall decide all questions arising out of: 

I. Laws or acts of whatever authority violating individual guaranties. 

II. Laws or acts of the Federal authority encroaching upon or restricting the 
sovereignty of the States. . ,. , , r , t- j r 

III. Laws or acts of the State authorities invading the sphere of the t-ederai 
authority. ,. . , , ,, , j ^ j 

Art. 102. All the cases referred to in the preceding article shall be conducted, 
on petition of the aggrieved party, according to rules of proceedings which a special 
law shall establish. The decision shall always be rendered in such a language as ex- 
clusively to affect the individuals concerned in the case, limiting itself to defend and 
protect them in the special case to which the proceedings refer, without making any 
general declaration respecting the law or the act which gave rise to the case. 

TITLE IV. 

Responsibility of the Public Functionaries. 
Art. 103. The Senators and Deputies to the Congress of the Union, the Magis- 
trates of the Supreme Court of Justice, and the Secretaries of the Departments, are 



* Amendment of 22 May, 1900. 
tAmendment of 29 May, 1884. 



348 MEXICO. 

responsible for the comiiioii crimes which they may coniniit during their terms of 
office, ami for the crimes, defaults and omissions of which tliey may be guilty in the 
exercise of their offices. The (lovernors of the States are responsible for the in- 
fraction of the Constitution and I'edoral Laws. The President atul N'ice-President 
of the Republic, during the term of their office, can only be accused of treason to 
the country express violation of the Constitution, attack on the freedom of elections 
(atacjitc a la tihcrtnd electoral), and grave crimes of common order." 

The high oflicials of the Federation do not enjoy any constitutional privilege 
ifiiero) on account of the orficial crimes, defaults or omissions of which they are 
guilty in tlie discharge of any public employment, office or commission which they 
.accepted during the time such privilege is enjoyed according to law. 'J"he same is 
true in resjiect to conunon crimes which they may commit during the discharge of 
said employment, office or cammission. In order that the cause may be begun when 
the high official returns to exercise his functions, the procedure prescribed in Art. 
104 of the Constitution must be followed. t 

Art. 104. If the crime should be a common one, the Chamber of deputies, acting 
as a grand jury, shall declare, by absolute majority of votes, whether or not there 
is sufficient ground to proceed against the accused. In the negative case, there 
shall be no ground for further proceeding; in the affirmative, the accused shall be, 
by the said act, deprived of his office, and subjected to the action of the ordinary 
tribunals. t 

.\kt. 105. Official crimes shall be cognizable: by the Chamber of Deputies as a 
Jury of Accusation, and by that of the Senators as a Jury of Sentence. The Jury 
of Accusation shall have for its object, to declare, by an absolute majority of votes, 
whether the accused is or is not guilty. If the declaration is favorable {fuere 
■absolatoria), the official shall continue in the exercise of his office. If it be con- 
demnatory, he shall be immediately removed from said office and shall be placed at 
the disposition of the Chamber of Senators; which, resolved into a Jury of Sentence, 
and after hearing the defendant and the accuser, if there be one. shall proceed to 
apply, by an absolute majority of votes, the penalty which the law designates. t 

Art. 106. In cases of impeachment no pardon can be granted to the offender. 

Art. 107. Ths responsibility for official crimes and misdemeanors can only be 
enforced during the period in which the functionary remains in office, and one year 
thereafter. 

Art. 108. In civil cases no privilege or immunity in favor of any public function- 
ary shall be recognized. 

title v. 
States of tlie Federation. 

Art. 109. The States shall adopt for their internal regime the popular, repre- 
sentative, republican form of government, and they may provide in their respective 
Constitutions for the re-election of the governors, in accordance with the provisions 
of Art 73 in regard to the President of the Republic. J 

."Xrt. 110. The States shall have the power to fix among themselves, by friendly 
agreements, their respective boundaries; but those agreements shall not be carried 
into effect without the approval of the Congress of the Union. 

Art. 111. The States can not in any case: 

I. Enter into alliances, treaties, or coalitions with another State, or with foreign 
powers. Coalitions between frontier States for offensive or defensive war against 
•savage Indians are excepted. 

II. Grant letters of marque or reprisal. 

III. Coin money, issue paper money, stamps or create stamped paper. 

IV. Ta.x (graz'ar) the passage of persons or things which pass through their 
territory.! 

V. Prohibit or tax, directly or indirectly, the entry into their territory, nor the 
leaving it, of any national or foreign merchandise. 

VI. Tax the ciiculation or the consumption of national or foreign goods, with 
imposts or duties, the exaction of which is effected through local customs houses, 
or re(|uires the inspection or examination of packages, or requires any documents to 
accompany the merchandise. 

VII. Enact or enforce laws or fiscal dispositions which produce differences of 
taxation (inipitestos) or requirements, on account of the origin of national or for- 
•eign merchandise, whether such difference is established because of (respecto de) 
the similar production of the locality, or between like productions of different origin 
iproccdencia). 

VJII. Issue evidences (titulos) of public debt payable in foreign money or outside 
■of the national territory; contract, directly or indirectly, loans M-ith foreign Gov- 
•ernnients; or contract obligations in favor of corporations or individuals of foreign 
nationality, when it is necessary to issue for such purpose documents payable to the 
bearer or transferable by endorsements. §§ 



■'.Amendment of 13 November, 1874, and 6 May, 1904. 

t.'Vmendment of 13 November. 1874. 

i.Vinendment of 21 October, 1S87. 

^This amendment, of INIay 1. 1906. was the final step in tlie abolition of the inter- 
state customs-tax called alcobala, which was a very serious restriction of internal 
commerce and a grievous abuse. 

§S. Amendment of 1 Mav, 1896. 



CONSTITUTION. 349 

Art. 112. Neither can they, without the consent of the Congress of the Union: 

I. Establish tonnage duties, or any port duty, or impose taxes or duties upon im- 
ports or exports. 

II. Have at any time permanent troops or vessels of war. 

III. Make war by itself on any foreign power, except in cases of invasion or of 
■such imminent peril as to admit of no delay. In these cases the State shall give 
notice im.mediately to the President of the Republic. 

Art. 113. Each State is bound to deliver without delay to the authority v-hich 
may claim them, the fugitives from justice of other States. 

Art. 114. The governors of the States are bound to publish and enforce the 
Federal laws. 

Art. lis. In each State of the Federation entire faith and credit shall be given 
to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of all the other States. The 
Congress may, by means of general laws, prescribe the manner of proving said 
acts, records, and proceedings, and the effect thereof. 

Art. 116. The Federal Government is bound to protect the States against all 
invasion or external \'iolence. In case of insurrection or internal disturbance it shall 
.give them the same protection, provided that the legislature of the States, or the 
Executive, if the legislature is not in session, shall request it. 

TITLE VI. 

General Provisions. 

Art. 117. The powers which are not expressly granted by this Constitution to 
the Federal authorities are understood to be reserved to the States. 

Art. 118. No person shall hold at the same time two Federal elective offices; 
"but if elected to two, he may choose the one which he may prefer. 

Art. 119. No payment shall be made which is not included in the budget or 
authorized by a law subsequent to the same. 

Art. 120. The President of the Republic, the justices of the supreme court, the 
members of Congress, and all other public officers of the Federation, who are chosen 
l)y popular election, shall receive a compensation for their services, wliich shall be 
determined by law and paid by the Federal treasury. This compensation can not be 
-waived, and any law which may increase or decrease it shall not have effect during 
the period for which a functionary holds the office. 

Art. 121. Every public officer, without any exception, before entering on the 
discharge of his duties, shall take an oath to maintain this Constitution and the laws 
•emanating from it. 

Art. 122. In time of peace no military authority shall exercise other functions 
than those having close connection with military discipline. No fixed and permanent 
military offices shall be established except in castles, fortresses, and arsenals depend- 
ing immediately upon the government of the Union, or in camps, barracks, or depots 
■established outside of towns for stationing troops. 

Art. 123. The Federal authorities shall have exclusive power to exercise, in mat- 
ters of religious worship and external ecclesiastic discipline, the intervention which 
the laws may authorize. 

Art. 124. It is the exclusive right (facultad privatk'a) of the Federation, to tax 
the merchandise which is imported or exported, or which passes in transit through 
the national territory, as well as to regulate at all times and even to prohibit, for 
reasons of safety or police, the circulation in the interior of the Republic of every 
class of effects, whatever may be the place from which they come (su proccdencia) ; 
provided, that the Federation itself cannot establish or enact (dicta?-) in the District 
and Federal Territories, the taxes and laws mentioned in fractions VI and VII of 
Art. 111.* 

Art. 125. The forts, barracks, warehouses and other real properties destined by 
the Government of the Union to the public service and common use, shall be subject 
to the jurisdiction of the Federal Powers in the terms established bv the law which 
the Congress of the Union will issue; but in order that those hereafter acquired 
withm the territory of any State may be likev/ise under Federal jurisdiction, the 
•consent of the Legislature of such State shall be necessary.f 

Art. 126. This Constitution, the laws of the Congress of the Union emanating 
therefrom, and all the treaties made or to be made by the President of the Republic 
•with the approval of Congress shall be the supreme law of the whole Union. The 
judges of each State shall be guided by said Constitution, laws, and treaties, any 
provision to the contrary in the constitutions or laws of the States notwithstanding. 

title VII. 

Amendments to the Consiltution. 

Art. 127. The present Constitution may be amended. No amendment shall be- 
come part of the Constitution, if not agreed upon bv the Congress of the Union 
by a vote of two-thirds of the members present, and approved by a majority of the 
legislatures of the States. The Congress of the Union shall count the votes of the 
legislatures and make the declaration that the amendments have been adopted. 

* Amendment of 1 May, 1896. 
fAmendment of 31 October, 1901. 



350 



MEXICO. 



riTLK VIII. 

Inviolability of the Constitution. 
.Art. 128. This Constitution shall not lose its force and vigor even if its ob- 
servance is interrupted by a rebellion. In case that by any public disturbance a gov- 
ernment contrary to the principles which it sanctions is established, its efficiency shall 
be restored as soon as the people regain their liberty, and those who shall have 
figured in the government emanating front the rebellion, or have co-operated with it, 
shall be tried in accordance with its provisions, and the provisions of the laws 
emanating from it. 

Transient Provision. 

The present Constitution shall be published at once and sworn to with the greatest 
solemnity throughout the whole Republic; but its provisions, except those relating 
tc the election of the supreme powers. Federal and State, shall not go into effect 
until the sixteenth of September next, when the First Congress, under the Con- 
stitution, shall meet. On and after that date the President of the Republic and the 
justices of the supreme court, who sliall ccntiiiue in the e.xercise of their functions 
tintil their successors are constitutionally elected and enter into the discharge of their 
duties, shall act in strict accordance witli the provisions of this Constitution. 

The end of the original Constitution was as follows: 

Given at the Hall of sessions of Congress in the City of Mexico on the fifth of 
February, eighteen hundred and fifty-sevi-n, the thirty-seventh of the Independence. 





The Historic Momekt in the History of the Republic of Mexico. 

As the hands of the clock approached eleven on the evenhig of September 
15, 1910, President Diaz waved the flag of his country and pulled the 
cord that caused the liberty bell to sound, as did Hidalgo in Dolores 
100 years ago. As the cry of "Viva Independencia" went up, it was 
answered by tens of thousands of voices around the National Palace, 
and the new century had begun. 



■ODJ: MEXICO. 



APPI'.XDIX \'ll. 

Land Law (Abridged). 

As originally pulilishcd March 26. 1X94. 

'The Regulations governing its application bear date uf June 5, 1894. 

(N. B. According to a Decree of Congress, December 18, 1909, the 
sale of public lands has been temporarilj- suspended, while a Commission 
appointed at the same time for that purpose shall make a report covering 
these puiilic lands ; but lands may be leased, at a price which shall repre- 
sent no less than 5 per cent annually of the value of said lands.) 

This is in accordance with the message of the President, read April 1, 
1910, in which the paragraph touching on that point is as follows : 

Owing to the \agueness and inaccuracy of the data possessed by the 
Government as to the lands that belong to the Nation, and the difficulties 
thus occurring in transactions involving those lands, the Executive 
found itself obliged, as from July 27 (1909) to suspend sale of national 
land and to send to Congress a law suspending also the denouncement of 
vacant lands and authorizing the creation of an Agrarian Commission, 
which, without any other object but the ascertainment of the truth, should 
proceed to re-survey, measure and collect all other data as to such national 
property. Congress acted favorably on this proposal, and the decree em- 
-bodying- the measure was promulgated on December 29, 1909. 

Under this law Government lands are divided into four classes, as 
'follows : 

1. Tcrrciios baldios (public lands) are all lands in the Republic not 
devoted to public use by the proper authorities, nor by them conveyed, 
gratuitously or otherwise, to private individuals or corporations, according 
to law. 

2. Dciiiasias (excess holdings) are the lands in possession of private 
individuals in excess of the area determined by the boundaries established 
by the original grant, when such holdings lie within said boundaries, 
being a part of the whole grant. 

3. E.xccdencias (outside possessions) are lands possessed by private in- 
dividuals for twenty or more years, lying beyond the boundaries estab- 
lished by the original grant, but adjoining the land under such grant. 

4. Terrenos nacionales (national lands) are the unallotted public or 
vacant lands surveyed by official commissions or by duly authorized cor- 
porations, or public lands denounced by private individuals who have 
subsequently abandoned their claims, or when such claims have not been 
•granted, provided the land has been actually surveyed. 

All residents in the Republic of legal age and contractual capacity have 
the right to denounce or pre-empt public land in any part thereof to an 
unlimited extent, except natives or naturalized citizens of bordering na- 
tions, who can not through any title acquire land in any State or 
Territory bordering on their country. The privilege hereby granted in 
nowise repeals the limitations of laws now or hereafter to be enacted 
relating to the acquisition of real estate by aliens. 

The Executive shall establish, by decree to be published in January of 
each year, the schedule of prices of public lands in each State, the Federal 
District, and the Territories. This schedule shall remain in force during 
the fiscal year next succeeding its publication. 



I 



LAND LAW. 353 

The following lands can not be alienated through any title whatsoever : 

1. The seashore. 

2. The shore lines extending 20 meters back of high-water mark along 
the coasts of the mainland and islands. 

3. A strip 10 meters wide along each bank of navigable rivers and 5 
meters wide along the banks of smaller streams capable of floating any 
marketable substance. 

4. Lands having monumental ruins, together with the ground that 
may be declared necessary for their care and preservation. 

Only the Department of Promotion (Fomento) is authorized to enter 
into contracts for the exploitation of public lands or to lease said lands 
while no claims or denouncements are pending, and to issue proper 
rules and regulations for the cutting of timber or the development of 
such land products, establishing penalties for the violation of said rules 
and regulations. 

Lessees or contractors for public lands may be granted the right to 
acquire said lands at a certain rate, in case third parties should file claims 
for grants covering the lands in question. This right is to be enforced 
within thirty days after the denouncement or claim is filed, the lessees 
or contractors being under obligation, should they acquire the land, 
to reimburse the claimant for all surveying and other expenses connected 
with the filing of the denouncement. 

Licenses granted for the exploitation of public lands expire upon the 
final grant of the land to a denouncer or claimant. 

The denouncing of public lands must be made before the agent of 
the Department of Promotion (Fomento) within whose jurisdiction the 
land is situated. 

Within fifteen days after the filing of the necessary petition, the agent 
must investigate whether the land has been surveyed or is reserved for 
forests, colonies, or settlement of Indians, or otherwise. 

Every denouncement must be published in the ofiice of the agent, the 
ofiicial paper of the State, District, or Territory where the land is situated, 
at the expense of the denouncer, at whose expense also the survey of the' 
land is to be made by an expert engineer to be named by him with the 
approval of the agent. 

The survey and the plat of the land having been made and no protest 
having been filed, the agent will make copies of the record and plat and 
transmit the same to the Department of Promotion (Fomento) through 
the governor of the State in question, for inspection. 

Should the Department find the record, plat, etc., unobjectionable, it 
will adjudicate the land in favor of the denouncer and notify him to pay 
the price thereof. 

This price is that fixed by the schedule in force at the time the denounce- 
ment is made, and must be paid within two months after notification. 
If this term should expire without proof of the payment having been 
received at the Department, the denouncer loses the rights he may have 
acquired ; otherwise the patent will be delivered to him. 

Should any protest be interposed, the matter will be carried to the 
court of the district within whose jurisdiction the land is situated, to 
try the issues. In such suits the district attorney will represent 'the 
Government. Suits of this character act as a stay of all administrative 
action until final judgment is delivered. 



MEXICO. 



APPENDIX Vlll. 

Colonization Law. 

The (new) Ininiigration and Colonization Law came into effect on 
March \, 1909. The following presents the most important features of 
the text : 

Chapter 1. 

General Provisions. 

Article \. Foreigners coming to the Republic may enter only 

(1) Through ports open to commerce of the high seas; 

(2) Through frontier points open to foreign commerce or especially 
designated by the Executive. 

Article 2. Every foreigner who desires to enter the national territory 
will be subject to inspection or examination in order that it may be deter- 
mined whether he is admissible according to this law. 

iNlexicans also will be inspected, in order that the necessary precautions 
ma}' be taken in case they are suffering from transmissible diseases. 

Article 3. Foreigners belonging to any of the following classes will 
not be entitled to enter : 

(1) Persons suffering from bubonic plague, cholera, yellow fever 

* * * or any acute malady which may be considered transmissible; 

(2) Persons suffering from tuberculosis, leprosy * * * or any 
chronic malady which is considered transmissible. 

(3) Epileptics and persons of unsound mind; 

(*4) Persons who, owing either to old age, debility, deformity 

* * * or in any way crippled or afflicted with physical or mental 
defect, or * * * liable to become a public burden ; 

(5) Children under sixteen years of age, not traveling in the care 
of some other passenger nor consigned to any person residing in the 
country who is to take charge of them. 

(6) Fugitives from justice and persons who have been sentenced 
for any felony which, according to Mexican law, would be chastised 
with more than two years' imprisonment, with the exception * * * 
of offenses of a political or purely military character ; 

(7) Persons belonging to anarchistic societies or who propagate, 
hold or profess the doctrine of the violent destruction of governments 
or the assassination of public functionaries ; 

(8) Mendicants or persons who in any way live on public charity; 

(9) Prostitutes and persons who attempt to bring them into the 
country. * * * 

Article 4. Foreigners included in Sections 2, 3, and 4 of the foregoing 
Article may enter and sojourn in the country by special concession of the 
Executive, provided they give bond =i' * * for treatment at their own 
expense * * * and that they will not become a public burden. 

Article 5. (A foreigner living in the country intending to become a 
naturalized Mexican may bring in members of his family even though 
afflicted as in the above sections 2 and 3 of Article 3, under proper 
permission.) 



COLONIZATION LAW. 355 

Article 6. Foreigners of more than three j-ears' residence in the Re- 
public, and absence therefrom of not more than one year, will be con- 
sidered on the same footing as Mexicans * * *_ 

Article 7. (A foreigner, in the country contrary to this law, may be sent 
back whence he came if, at the time of his being held, he has not resided 
more than three years in the Republic. The deportation will take place 

* * * with the same company by which he arrived, and if that be not 
possible, then by a second company at the expense of the first.) 

Article 8. (The deportation may be suspended if, in the judgment of the 
Executive, the foreigner's evidence be necessary in a penal suit.) 

Article 9. Navigation and immigration companies are pecuniarily liable 
for contraventions of this law committed by their employees or agents 

Article 10. * * * This law is not applicable to foreign diplomatic 
agents, their families and suites, nor to persons exempted from territorial 
jurisdiction, according to * * * international law. 

Article 11. (The Department of the Interior has charge of the enforce- 
ment of this law.) 

Chapter II. 

Concerning the Entrance of Passengers Through Seaports. 

Article 12. On arrival of a steamship having on board passengers who 
purpose landing in the Republic, the following rules will be observed : 

(1) The commander of the ship will present to the Inspector of 
Immigration duplicate lists of passengers * * * stating * * * 
name, age * * * and point of final destination in the Re- 
public. * * * 

(2) The lists will state * * * which are the sick passengers 
and what maladies they are suffering from, with the attestation of the 
ship's physician * * * 

(3) Each passenger will receive a card * * * so that he may 
be readily identified. 

(4) The commander will also note * * * information * * * 
so that it may be determined whether any of the passengers are to be 
denied admittance into the Republic. 

(5) Every passenger will have to submit to a medical examina- 
tion * * *_ 

The commander of a vessel who contravenes any of the provisions of 
this article or who omits stating * * * the true condition of any pas- 
sengers, will be penalized * * * with a fine * * *. 'Phe same fine 
will be imposed on the ship's doctor if he shall have given * * * ^jg 
signature to false declarations. 

Article 13. Disembarcation will take place * * * ^g designated by 
the Inspector of Immigration * * *. 

Article 14. (Contains technical details about the sanitary station.) 

Article 15. Passengers who, on their arrival, are suffering from any of 
the transmissible diseases enumerated in Section 1 of Article 3 will be 
isolated in the lazaretto of the port until they are cured. Expenses 

* * * will be charged to the passenger receiving them, and if he be 
destitute of funds, such expenses must be paid by the company which 
brought him. If the insolvent passenger be a Mexican, his expenses will 
"be charged to the public administration. 

Article 16. Foreigners who, on their arrival, are sufifering from any of 
the transmissible diseases * * * -will not be permitted to land (with- 
out) * * * special permission from the Executive. 



COLONIZATION LAW. 357 

Article 17. Mexicans suffering from any of the transmissible diseases 

* * * will be sent to the hospital for isolation and cure, unless they 
give a sutlficient bond to guarantee that they will undertake to be cured 

* * * at their own expense * * *. 

Article 18. When a foreigner suffering from * * * disease or disa- 
bility * * * succeeds in landing, he will be at once re-embarked in 
the same vessel by which he arrived or, if said vessel has already left, 
then in the next vessel of the same company sailing for the country from 
which such foreigner came, or in any other vessel having the same 
destination * * *. 

Passengers * * * to be re-embarked will remain in custody * * * 
at the expense of the coinpany which brought them **=!'. 

Article 19. If the commander of a vessel should refuse to comply with 
an order for re-embarkation * * * ^ fine shall be imposed upon him. 
and the vessel will not be cleared * * *. 

Chapter III. 
Concerning Immigrant Laborers and Immigration Companies. 

Article 20. * " * Foreigners will be regarded as immigrant laborers, 
who come to the Republic to engage temporarily or permanently in phys- 
ical labor. Persons constituting the family of an immigrant laborer will 
also be considered as such. 

The entry of immigrants will be ruled by the provisions of this and 
the preceding chapter. 

Article 21. The entrance of immigrant laborers in groups of more than 
ten in one vessel will be allowed to take place only through ports spe- 
cially designated by the Executive. 

Article 22. Navigation companies whose vessels are devoted exclusively 
to the transportation of immigrant laborers, or which habitually have 
more than ten of them on board on each trip, will be obliged to comply 
with the following requirements : 

(1) To equip their vessels with the necessary apparatus * * * 
to insure the destruction of pathogenic germs. 

(2) To have a physician on board of each vessel. 

(3) To maintain at the ports through which they bring in immi- 
grants (in case the Government has no sanitary establishment * * * 
there) quarters for the * * * observation of such immigrants. 

(4) To * * * care for * * * at their own expense and in 
accordance with * * * directions, all immigrants whom they have 
brought in as long as they are quartered in * * * places of ob- 
servation. 

(5) To take back in their vessels and at their own expense all im- 
migrants who are not admitted under this law =tc -+ * provided' 
they have been brought in on board their vessels. 

(6) To have in the City of Mexico a representative fully em- 
powered to treat as to all matters that may arise * * *^ and an- 
other such representative at each of the ports through which they 
may bring in immigrants. 

(7) To give bond * * * as a guarantee that they will comply 
with the obligations imposed * * * and to renew such bond as 
often as necessary. 

Article 23. Companies which fail to comply with the obligations 

* * * will be called upon to do so, and if they still fail * * *. 



358 MEXICO. 

within the * * * (jnu' allotted to them, no vessels of theirs with 
immigrants on txnird will he received in any Mexican port. 

If a company fails to comply with the ohligations (Sections 4 and 5 
of the preceding Article), the necessary sum will lie raised out of the 
bond (under Section 7). 

Article 24. When a vessel has on board more immigrants than can be 
accommodated in the sanitary station * * *^ only such number will be 
allowed to land as can be accommodated * * * ; the remainder will 
undergo examination and, if necessary, observation and cure, on board 
ship. 

(If no sanitary station is available) immigrants will remain on board 
for * * * examination and * * * medical care. 

.\rticle 25. When a vessel has on board a considerable number of im- 
migrant laborers under contract to enter the service of mining, industrial 
or agricultural concerns, the Executive may permit them to land at 
ports other than those ordinarily designated for the entrance of immi- 
grants, but in all cases proper precautions will be taken * * * to 
ensure the observance of this law. 

Article 26. When ordinary passengers and innnigrants arrive in 

* * * the same vessel, the lists (Article 12) will be separate. 
Article 27. * * * special lists will be drawai up of the ailing pas- 
sengers. 

Article 28. If none of the immigrants be suffering from infectious 
maladies, and there have been none such during the last ten days of the 
passage, and the vessel has not touched any suspected or infected port, 
the immigrants will be free to enter and continue their journey * * * 
as soon as the medical examination shall have been completed. 

Article 29. Immigrant laborers may be subjected to a period of ob- 
servation lasting as long as ten days, when there are individuals among 
them sufifering or suspected to be suffering from a transmissible dis- 
ease, or when there have been such during the passage, or in general 
whenever the Executive so decides. 

Article 30. If, during the period of observation, it be discovered that 
some among the immigrants labor under any disabilities * * * they 
will be re-embarked. 

Article 31. Immigrants who have not been vaccinated will be vaccinated 
at the sanitary station. 

Article 32. The sanitarj^ station * * * will be under the direction 

* * * of the sanitary delegate of the port. 

Article 33. The expenses * * * of the sanitary stations of immi- 
grants * * * T^y[\\ ]-;g ^ charge upon the companies themselves. 



Chapter IV. 

Conccruing the Entrance of Passengers by Land Routes. 

Article 34. The entrance of passengers by land routes will be subject 
to the following rules : 

(1) The examination will take place on board the railway trains. 

(2) The Inspector of Immigration will secure from each pas- 
senger, bj^ means of blank forms, particulars specified in Section 1 
of Article 12. 

(3) In order that trains may not be held long, agents will board 
the cars, examine passengers and obtain from them the required data. 



COLONIZATION LAW. 359 

(4) When passengers arrive otherwise than by rail, thej' may be 
"held at the points of entry as long as may be necessary for their 
examination * * *_ 

(5) Railway trains transporting only immigrant laborers or hav- 
ing more than thirty of them on board will be held on their reaching 
national territory in order that the immigrants may be forthwith 
examined * * *. 

(6) Foreigners suffering from any transmissible disease will be 
* * * excluded, or will be permitted to enter only on furnishing 
bond (Article 4). 

(7) Foreigners suspected to be suffering from a transmissible 
disease will be permitted to remain at the place of entry, * * * 
in observation, provided they guarantee payment for their board and 
lodging. 

Passengers making false statements will be penalized * * *. 

Article 35. The Inspector of Immigration may fix time and place 
for the entrance of passengers who do not come by rail. He may also 
fix a time for the entrance of extraordinary trains with passengers. 

Entrance at any time or place other than those authorized will 
be punished by the imposition * * * on employees in charge 
of the train or conveyance, and on those who have ordered the 
entrance * * *, of penalties * * * of a fine * * * q(. major 
arrest, or both. 

Passengers who have entered illegally * * * ^ill be pe- 
nalized * * *_ 

Chapter V. 

Concerning Administrative Jurisdiction in Matters of Immigration. 

Article 26. All matters connected with immigration will be under 
^ * * the Interior Department, which will administer them through 
the following functionaries and institutions: 

(1) Inspectors of Immigration * * * stationed at sea-ports 
or frontier through which entrance of passengers is allowed. 

(2) Auxiliary agents who * * * will assist the local In- 
spector in his work * * *. 

(3) Immigration Boards, which will be established at every point 
where there are Inspectors, and which will consist of three persons 
specially appointed, or, if no appointments are made, of the sanitary 
delegate, the collector of customs or chief of the custom-house, and 
some other Federal employee * * * 

Article 37. At points where there is no Inspector of Immigration, the 
sanitary delegate will discharge the functions of that official. 

Article 38. The decisions of the inspectors * * * will be revised 
lay the Immigration Board, if a request to that effect be made * * *. 
All decisions will be recorded in writing and signed * * *. 

Article 39. It is the prerogative of the Inspectors of Immigration to im- 
nose the fines * * *. Their decisions will, however, be revised by the 
Interior Department, * * *. 

Chapter VI. 

Concerning Penal Jurisdiction in the Application of This Law. 

Article 40. The Federal Tribunals are competent to try all cases grow- 
ing out of the violation of this law. 



360 



MEXICO. 



Article 41. At points where there is no district judge in residence, the 
ordinary local judges, acting as auxiliaries of the Federal judicature, 
will * * * with consent of the competent Federal court, conduct the 
case as far as the sentence stage. * * * 

Transient Article. 

Article 49 of the Sanitary Code, and in general all enactments at 
variance with the precepts of this law, are repealed, and this law will 
go into effect on the first day of March, 1909. 




362 



MEXICO. 



APPENDIX IX. 

Mining Code of Mexico.* 



On the morning of November 25, 1909, President Diaz set his signa- 
ture to the new mining code of Mexico as passed by the two legislative 
camaras. The new mining code, to become effective after the 1st day 
of January, 1910, supercedes the code of 1892. It contains, however, 
comparatively little that is new. The cardinal features of the old Mex- 
ican mining law are in no wise changed. The main purpose of the new 
codification was to fuse into one homogeneous and co-ordinated whole 
the provisions of the old code and the related heterogeneous mass of 
executive decrees and departmental rulings and circulars which had 
accumulated during some twenty years, and which made the search and 
application of the Mexico mining laws a matter of no little difficulty. 
The general consensus of opinion in the mining and legal professions 
liere is that the new law is a masterpiece of conservative effort and that 
it will stand as a monument to the wisdom and energy of the Secretary 
of the Department of Fomcnto, Sefior Licenciado Olegario Molina, who 
compiled it. 

The fundamental principles to-day underlying the mining laws of 
Me.xico are borrowed from the Spanish legislation, modified in certain 
respects to meet the different political and economical conditions existing 
here. Under the Mexican law all mineral deposits are divided sharply 
into two classes. Those falling in the first class belong to the owner of 
the soil, whereas those falling in the second class lie in the grant of the 
nation and may be acquired only by denouncement and the issue of a 
federal patent. The substances belonging to the owner of the soil em- 
brace deposits of mineral combustibles, such as coal and oil, of bituminous 
substances, and of surface salts ; also quarries of marble, slate, building 
stone, etc. These do not come under the mining laws for any purpose 
whatsoever, except that coal mines are subject to federal police inspec- 
tion. The substances which lie in the grant of the federal power are 
all deposits of inorganic substances found in veins or masses the forma- 
tion of which is separate and distinct from that of the country rock. 
Such substances include the minerals, such as gold, silver, lead, copper, 
etc. ; the precious stones ; sulphur, arsenic, and tellurium, and rock salt. 
To these deposits must be added placers of gold and of platinum. All 
these fall under the provisions of the mining code, and, until granted, 
are owned by the Federal Government, representing the nation, wherever 
they may be found, whether in private ground or in the public domain. 

As a consequence of this, the mineral ownership is different from the 
ownership of the soil ; and the freehold in the mineral deposits is for all 
legal purposes distinct and permanently separated from the freehold in 
the soil. Even when the two estates are united in the same person, no 
legal fusion takes place; each estate is held under and by virtue of 
a distinct title. 

Mines are acquired from the Government under an administrative pro- 
ceeding had before a local representative of the Department of Fomento, 
called a mining agent. The proceeding is termed a denouncement. Any 
person, whether foreign or native, except as indicated below, may de- 
nounce a mining property and secure a patent to the same. The title is 

*Abstracted by Frederick F. Barker, Mexico City. 



MINING LAW. 363 

issued to the first applicant. The Mexican law gives no preference to 
the discoverer of the mine, nor to the first occupant, nor to the owner 
of the soil. Priority of application, with issue of title and due registra- 
tion thereof, alone gives priority of right. 

The unit of grant is what is called a pertoiencia, being a solid of un- 
limited depth, the upper or projected extremity of which is a square 
measuring 100 meters (328 feet) on each side. The law sets no limit 
to the size of the mineral grant, and the applicant's enthusiasm will be 
restrained only by the fact that on every perienencia he must pay an 
initial tax of 5 pesos (a peso being the equivalent of 50 cents in United 
States currency), and an annual tax thereafter of 6 pesos a pertenencia 
on the first 25 perteneiicias and 3 pesos a pertenencia on the excess, pro- 
vided they are contiguous. 

Although the oAvner of a mining grant does not own or control the 
surface ground, the law, regarding the mining industry as a public 
utility, compels the surface owner to permit whatever easements or 
expropriation of ground may be found necessary for the conduct of the 
mining operations. The law also grants the miner the use and en- 
jo3'ment of the waters discovered in the mine. 

It will be of especial interest to the American reader that the Mexican 
law knows nothing of the "apex rule." A miner may not pass the 
vertical planes of his grant ; his mining operations must be confined 
strictly within his boundary lines drawn downward perpendicularly. 

Once the miner has denounced, secured title to, and recorded his mine, 
all of which takes only a few months, he becomes the real owner thereof 
and may commence his mining operations. His property is subject to 
forfeiture only for nonpayment of the annual mining tax referred to 
above. No yearly assessment or presentation work is required of him. 
Subject to the police regulations governing mines, a miner may work his 
mineral deposits as he sees fit or may defer work indefinitely. Punctual 
payment of the mining tax is his sole condition of tenure. 

These, in a few words, have been the basic principles of the Mexican- 
mining laws for many years. The new code does not modify them in any 
way, but removes some of the old restrictions which hampered their ap- 
plication. In the first place, the new code completely federalizes the law 
applicable to mining property. The mining laws have always been federal 
in origin and sanction, but where no provision of the mining law was. 
found to cover a given point, the local law was applied. Under the new 
code, in such cases the provisions of the civil code of the Federal Dis- 
trict become applicable. Furthermore, the federal courts are given a 
wider jurisdiction than formerly over mining cases; and certain crim- 
inal offenses committed against mining enterprises, such as the robbery 
of minerals, are made of federal sanction. 

To the commercial world, perhaps the most important innovation con- 
tained in the new mining code is that to be found in the provisions- 
relative to mine options. Under the new law a mine option covering a 
period of two years may be recorded, and the holder of the option 
thereby acquires a property right in the mine. In other words, his right 
to exercise the option under the terms of the agreement will not be 
affected by any attempt on the part of the owner of the mine to sell to 
some other party. Up to the present time it has been well-nigh im- 
possible to secure to the holder of an option full legal protection. 

The new code has diminished somewhat the prospectors' rights and 
privileges as accorded under the old law. It has been found that the too 
liberal provisions of the former code had led to abuse. Under the law 
as it now stands, any person may secure a permit to explore either in 
public or in private lands, but the area of exploration is limited to the 
area of a circle the diameter of which does not exceed 1,000 meters. 



364 MEXICO. 

(3,280 feet). The term of exploration permitted is limited to sixty days, 
and is not renewable except after the lapse of six montiis. The holder 
of an exploration permit has a preferential right to denounce mines 
found in the exploration zone, but only during the life of the permit of 
course. No exploration permits are procurable in ground where mining 
operations have already been conducted, nor within 200 meters (656 
feet) of a mining property, nor in inhabited districts. 

A provision of the new mining code wdiich will appeal to all miners is 
to the effect that no title or patent will be issued until the proper bound- 
ary monuments have been set up. Present holders of mining properties 
lacking these monuments are allowed one year within which to construct 
them. 

Uder the old mining law and related jurisprudence certain forms of 
mining partnership had come to be regarded as unlawful. The new code 
sweeps away all such restrictions and prohibitions and makes the federal 
commercial code applicable in such matters. The commercial code is 
very liberal in respect of partnerships and corporate associations. 

It may be added that the system of registration of mining titles has 
been perfected; that the administrative powers of the Department of 
Fomento have been somewhat increased, especially in the matter of the 
creation of provisional easements and the provisional expropriation of 
ground for mining uses, as also in the inspection of mines with a view 
to enforcing the mining law and its regulations and to the securing of 
statistical data; and, finally, that the new law permits the expropriation 
of ground for the construction of metallurgical works and railroads to 
be operated in connection with the mining property. 

A word in conclusion in regard to the status of foreign miners in the 
Republic of Mexico. Except in a zone of 80 kilometers (50 miles) along 
the border, the mining laws of Mexico do not discriminate against the 
foreigner. A foreign company, partnership, or individual may conduct 
explorations, denounce mines, and obtain mineral grants, under the same 
terms and conditions as a Mexican citizen. To enjoy these privileges, not 
even residence in the Republic is necessary, since both the denounce- 
ment may be made and the title secured through a representative. 
Within the aforesaid zone an individual may indeed denounce mines, 
but in order to obtain a title under which to work them or to acquire 
permanent property rights in mines so located, or mortgages thereon, he 
must first secure a permit from the President of the Republic. In the 
case of foreign companies, these may neither denounce nor permanently 
acquire by any means whatever mining lands or mortgages thereon 
within the zone indicated. Where such property is acquired under a 
judgment for debt, or upon succession at death, a year is allowed for 
the disposal of the mines. Under the Mexican laws, however, a Mexican 
corporation may consist partly or entirely of nonresident foreigners. 
There is nothing, therefore, either in the spirit or in the letter of the 
law, to prevent a foreigner from denouncing a mine in the border zone 
and subsequently forming a Mexican corporation, in which he may hold 
practically all the stock, to take over and operate his mining interests 
so acquired. 

The rules and regulations of the new mining law of Mexico are printed 
in full in the "Diario Ondal" of December 18, 1909, and are classified 
under the following heads: (1) Concerning mining claims; (2) con- 
cerning denouncements of mining claims; (3) concerning oppositions ; 
and (4) general provisions concerning applications for mining claims, 
easements, transportation and exploration, and expropriation and permits 
to foreigners. Another law of the same date treats of the fees to be 
paid mining agents. 

When it is desired to prospect on government lands, a fee of 4 pesos 



MINING LAW. 365 

must accompany the application to the mining agent. If the prospecting 
is to be done on private lands, and the owner of same gives his consent 
thereto, a fee of 4 pesos must be paid at the time of filing the applica- 
tion, but should the consent of the owner of the land not be obtained, a 
charge of 8 pesos will be made. 

The total fees to be paid to the mining agent for all the proceedings 
in a denouncement, including a copy of the docket, until the delivery of 
the respective title, provided no reduction of claims or opposition arises 
during the proceedings, are as follows : Two pesos at the time of filing 
the denouncement; 10 pesos on the acceptance of the denouncement by 
the mining agent, and 18 pesos on receiving the copy of the extract of 
the application for publication. 

For the proceedings caused by an application for the reduction of a 
denouncement of mining claims that_ is in course of procedure, 8 pesos 
at the time of presenting the application. 

For the complete proceedings of an application for the rectification of 
a mining property in any of the cases prescribed in articles 53, 54, and 
55 of the mining law, provided no opposition proceeding arise up to the 
time the new title or copy of the proceedings that are to be attached_ to 
the title are delivered, the following fees must be paid to the mining 
agent : 10 pesos at the time of filing the application and_ 18 pesos on re- 
ceiving a copy of the extract of the application for publication. 

For taking the steps necessary to expedite an application for the 
division of a mining property up to the time of the delivery of the titles 
for the new properties, a paymicnt of 5 pesos must be made to the mining 
agent on filing the petition. 

F""or all proceedings relating to the reduction of the claims (perte- 
nencias) of a mining property, 10 pesos on filing the application. 

For all proceedings concerning applications for the expropriation of 
lands or easements, if the mining agent intervenes in the same, a pay- 
ment must be made in each case on filing the respective petition. 

In case of opposition to a denouncement, the denouncer shall pay for 
the proceedings at the mining agency, 10 pesos, but retains the right to 
reclaim the same from the defendant or opposer in the corresponding 
suit. 

For a copy of writs of execution or judgments, issued m suits oppos- 
ing denouncements of mining properties, which copy should be included 
in the docket the mining agent sends to the Department of Fomento, a 
charge of 2 pesos per sheet, or fraction thereof, will be made. 
For checking and authorization of plans, 2 pesos. 

For a certified copy of the report of experts, or for any kind of docu- 
ment issued by the mining agents at the request of the parties in interest, 
a charge of 2 pesos per sheet, or fraction thereof, will be made. 
For the registration of any document, 1 peso. 

For locking up dockets, or any other documents contained in the files, 
1 peso. . . 

If the party in interest does not furnish sufficient data and it is neces- 
sary to register documents corresponding to more than one year a charge 
for registration of 1 peso per year will be made. 



366 MEXICO. 

APPENDIX X. 

Banks in Mexico. 

Banks of Emission. 

National Bank uf Mexico. . Alain Office, City of Mexico. 

Branches at Acapulco, Grro. ; Aguasca- 
lientes, Ags. ; Autlan, Jal. ; Bravos, Grro. ; 
Campeche, Cam. ; Celaya, Gto. ; Ciudad 
Guzman, Jal. ; Ciudad Juarez, Chih. ; 
Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, Coah. ; Ciudad Vic- 
toria, Tams. ; Colima, Col. ; Cuernavaca, 
Mor. ; Chihuahua, Chih. ; Durango, Dgo. ; 
Guadalajara, Jal.; Guanajuato, Gto.; 
Guaymas, Son. ; Hermosillo, Son. ; Ira- 
puato, Gto.; Jalapa, Ver. ; Lagos, Jal.; La 
Piedad, Mich. ; Leon, Gto. ; Matehuala, 
S. L. P.; Mazatlan, Sin.; Merida, Yuc. ; 
Monclova, Coah. ; Monterey, N. L. ; 
Morelia, Mich.; Nogales, Son.; Nuevo 
Laredo, Tams. ; Oaxaca, Oax. ; Orizaba, 
Ver.; Pachuca, Hgo. ; Parral, Chih.; 
Puebla, Pue. ; Puruandiro, Mich.; Quere- 
taro, Qro. ; Rioverde, S. L. P. ; Saltillo, 
Coah.; San Andres Tuxtla, Ver.; San 
Juan Bautista, Tab.; San Luis Potosi, 
S. L. P.; Tampico, Tams.; Tantoyuca, 
Ver. ; Tapachula, Chis. ; Tepic, Tep. ; Tez- 
iutlan, Pue. ; Tlaltenango, Zac. ; Toluca, 
Mex. ; Torreon, Coah. ; Tulancingo, Hgo. ; 
Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chis.; Uruapam, Mich.; 
Veracruz, Ver. ; Zacatecas, Zac. ; Z'amora, 
Mich. 

Bank of London and 

Mexico.. Head Office, City of Mexico. 

Branches at Veracruz, Ver.; Torreon, 
Coah.; Monterrey, N. L. ; Queretaro, 
Qro. ; Durango, Dgo. ; Mazatlan, Sin. ; 
Guadalajara, Jal.; Puebla, Pue.; San Luis 
Potosi, S. L. P.; Morelia, Mich.; Guana- 
juato, Gto.; Aguascalientes, Ags. 

Bank of Aguascalientes Head Office, City of Aguascalientes. 

Branch at Guadalajara, Jalisco. 

Bank of Campeche Head Office, Port of Campeche, Campeche. 

(By an agreement, October 30, 1908, this 
Bank has been changed into a banco re- 
faccionario.} 

Bank of Coahuila Head Office, Saltillo, Coahuila. 



BANKS. 367 

Mining Bank of 

Chihuahua. .Head Office, City of Chihuahua. 

Branches at Gomez Palacio, Dgo. ; Par- 
ral, Chih. ; Hermosillo, Son. 

Bank of Durango Head Office, City of Durango. 

Branch at Ciudad Gomez Palacio. 

Bank of Guanajuato Head Office, City of Guanajuato. 

Branches at Irapuato, Gto. ; Guadalajara, 
Jal. ; Zamora, Mich. 

Bank of Guerrero Head Office, Iguala. State of Guerrero. 

Bank of Hidalgo Head Office, Pachuca, State of Hidalgo. 

Bank of Jalisco Head Office, Guadalajara, State of Jalisco. 

Branches at Tepic, Tep. ; Zamora, Mich.; 
Ciudad Guzman, Jal. 

Bank of the State of 

Mexico.. Head Office, Toluca, State of Mexico. 

Branches at Morelia, Mich. ; El Oro, 
Mex. 
Mercantile Bank of 

Monterrey. .Head Office, Monterrej-, State of Nuevo 
I.eon. 

Bank OF MoRELos Head Office, Cuernavaca, State of More- 

los. 
Branch at Acapulco, Gro. 

Bank of I^Iueva Leon Head Office, ^Monterrey, State of Nuevo 

Leon. 

Occidental Bank of 

Mexico.. Head Office, Mazatlan, State of Sinaloa. 

Branches at Guaymas, Son. ; Colima, Col. 

Oriental Bank of Mexico.. Head Office, Puebla, State of Puebla. 

Branches at Teziutlan, Pue. ; Oaxaca, 
Oax. ; Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chis. ; Tehuacan, 
Pue. ; Tehauntepec, Oax. ; Tapachula, 
Chis. 
Peninsular Bank of 

Mexico. .Head Office, Merida, State of Yucatan. 
Branch at Campeche, Cam. 

Bank of Queretaro Head Office, Queretaro, State of Quere- 

taro. 
Branch at Irapuato, Gto. 

Bank of San Luis Potosi. . . Head Office, San Luis Potosi, State of San 

Luis Potosi. 



368 



MEXICO. 



Ban'k of Sondka Head Office, Hermosillo. State of Sonora. 

Branches at Guaymas, Son.; Alamos, 
Son.; Nogalcs, Son.; Culiaoan, Sin.; Chi- 
hnahna. Chili. 

Ban'k t)F Tahasco Hca'l Office, San Jnan I'.auti.sta, State of 

Tabasco. 
Branch at Pichncalco, Chis. 

Bank ui- Tamallii'a.s Head Office, Tampico. State of Taniauli- 

pas. 

MivRCANTiLK Bank of 

Veracruz. .Head Office, Veracruz, State of Veracruz. 

Branches at Jalapa, Vcr. ; Orizaba, Ver. ; 

Cordoba, Ver. ; San Andres Tuxtla, Ver. 

Bank of Zacatecas Head Office, Zacatecas, State of Zacatecas. 

Branches at Aguascalientes, Ags. ; 
Lagos, Jal. 



Mortgage Banks. 

Mortgage Bank of Territorial Credit of Mexico. Head Office, Mexico 
City (Banco Hipotecario de Credito Territorial Mexicano). 

International and Mortgage Bank of Mexico. Head Office, Mexico 
City (Banco Internacional e Hipotecario de Mexico). 



Banks of Encouragement. 

Mexican Central Bank. Head Office, Mexico City. 

Mexican Bank of Commerce and Industry. Head Office, Mexico City. 

Bank of Campeche. Head Office, Campeche, State of Campeche. 
(This is an encouragement bank — banco refaccionario — in operation 
since March 1, 1909, taking the place of an older Bank of Campeche, 
of issue.) 

Commercial Bank of Encouragement of Chihuahua. Head Office, 
Chihuahua, State of Chihuahua. 

Lacuna Bank of Encouragement. Head Office, Torreon, State of 
Coahuila. 

MiCHOACAN Bank of Encouragement. Head Office, Morelia, State of 
Michoacan. 

It should be known, also, that these banks have, besides their official 
branches, agencies or correspondents in all the larger cities throughout 
the Republic. 

Many of these banks once operated under former charters, but have 
changed their names or have been allowed to alter their character, within 
recent years. The above list represents the Federal chartered banks as 
reported in the Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal for the fiscal year ending 
June 30, 1910. 



BANKS. 



369 



In addition to these, however, there are in the City of Mexico several 
well-established banks, either of Mexican origin, or branches in the Re- 
public of foreign banking organizations. 



Banco Germanico de la America del Sur. 

Bank of Montreal. 

Caja de Prestamos para Obras de Irriga- 

cion y Fomento de la Agricultura. 
Compania Bancaria de Fomento y Bienes 

Raices de Mexico. 
Campania Banraria de Hipotecas y 

Prestamos. 
Compaiiia Bancaria de Fomento y Bienes 

Raices de Mexico. 
Compania Bancaria de Bienes Raices de 

Mexico. 
Compania Bancaria de Paris y Mexico. 
Compaiiia Banquera Mercantil. 
Descuento Espafiol. 
Federal Banking Company. 
Mexico Cit}- Banking Company. 
United .States & Mexican Trust Company. 
Monte de Piedad 
International Banking Coiporation. 



(German Bank of South America.) 

(Loan Bank for Irrigation and Agricul- 
tural Works.) 

(Banking Company of Real Estate and 
Promotion.) 

(Loan and Mortgage Banking Company.) 

(Mexican Banking Company for Promo- 
tion and Real Estate.) 
(Real Estate Banking Company.) 

(Banking Company of Paris.) 
(Mercantile Banking Company.) 
(Spanish Discount Society.) 



(National Pawnshop). 




370 MEXICO. 



APPENDIX XI. 
Outline of Tariff Schfdules. 

The Mexican Government maintains a protective tariff, charging import 
duties on many articles brought into the country ; from these charges a 
considerable amount, about 44 per cent, of the national revenue is derived; 
an export duty on a few articles is also payable, but the income from this 
source is scarcely one-half of one per cent of the national revenue. Cer- 
tain articles, such as materials of war and counterfeit money, are alto- 
gether prohibited from importation ; the exportation of Mexican antiquities 
and historical objects is also prohibited. A few articles are imported free 
of duty, a still larger list, such as fixed railroad stock, rolling stock, 
telegraph and building material, may be, under special concession, ad- 
mitted duty free, and the Executive has the right, in an emergency, to 
remit duties on specified articles, such as necessary foods, for the time 
being. The Territory of Quintana Roo enjoys practically an exemption 
from customs duty charges. 

The framework upon which in the tariff, import duties are levied, is 
as follows : 

Animal Substances : 
Live Animals. 

Animal Products and Wastes — Alimentary, Industrial, Medicinal. 
Products of Animal Origin — Alimentary, Industrial, Medicinal. 
Industrial Products and Manufactures — Articles of Fur and Leather, 
Foot Wear, Miscellaneous Articles. 

Vegetable Substances : 

Textile Fibers. 

Fruits and Cereals — Alimentary, Medicinal, Industrial, Live Plants 
and Seeds. 

Miscellaneous Vegetable Substances. 

Various Vegetable Products — Alimentary, Medicinal, Industrial. 

Wood. 

Manufactures of Vegetable Substances — Manufactures of Wood, Fur- 
niture, Articles of Various Substances. 

Mineral Substances : 

Gold, Silver and Platinum— Ores and Metals; Manufactured articles. 
Copper and Alloys thereof — Ores and Metals, Manufactured articles. 
Tin, Lead and Zinc— Ores and Metals, Manufactured articles. 
Iron and Steel— Ores, Construction and Mining Materials, Manu- 
factures. 
Other Metals. 

Stones and Earths— Mineral Products (Oils, coke, etc.). 
Manufactured Article:. 
Crystal Glass, Crockery and Porcelain. 

Textiles, and Manufactures thereof: 

Cotton— Yarns, Textiles, Manufactured articles. 
Flax, Hemp, etc.— Yarn, Tissues, Manufactured articles. 
Wool— Yarn. Tissues. Manufactured articles. 
Silk — Yarn, Tissues, Manufactured articles. 

Silk composed with other materials— Yarn, Tissues, Manufactured 
articles, artificial Silk. 



TARIFF. 371 

Chemical and Pharmaceutical Products. 
Spirituous, Fermented and Natural Beverages. 

Paper and Paper Products : 

Wastes and Pulp for the Manufacture of Paper. 
Paper and Cardboard. 
Manufactured Papers. 
Manufactured articles, of Paper. 

Machinery and Apparatus. 

Vehicles. 

Arms and Explosives. 

Miscellaneous Articles. 

This schedule embraces 713 tariff numbers, under which almost all 
goods are specified. 

Export duties are paid on the export of Broom root {sacaton), Chicle, 
Guayule grass, in a natural state or ground, Ixtle unmanufactured, hides 
and skins, untanned, and upon building lumber and cabinet woods of 
national origin, as well as upon foreign woods which pass through the 
territorial waters of the Republic. 

Customs Tariff Regulations Concerning Passengers' Baggage. 

Art. 219. Upon their arrival in the Republic passengers are required to 
present their baggage to the custom-house official in charge of baggage 
inspection, and they must open their baggage or furnish keys so that the 
contents may be inspected. 

Baggage shall be cleared in preference to anything else, and imme- 
diately after unloading, even outside the usual office hours ; and the 
inspection shall be continued, even at night, until completed, with the 
understanding that all packages shall be inspected. 

Household goods brought by passengers, equipment or wardrobes of 
public show companies or troupes, samples imported temporarily without 
payment of duties, and merchandise the duty on which may amount to 
more than 200 pesos shall not enjoy the privilege of immediate clearing; 
but the customs collectors shall arrange to give them preference over the 
ordinary importation of merchandise, and, if necessary, they shall be 
cleared outside of the usual office hours. 

Art. 221. When passengers have no dutiable articles in their baggage 
it shall be turned over to them without more delay than is necessary to 
make the inspection. 

Art. 222. For the clearance of goods which passengers bring with 
them, the duty on which, calculated according to tariff rates, exceeds 200 
pesos, but is not more than 500 pesos, an application is required, but in 
this case passengers are not obliged to make a detailed list of the articles 
in their possession, this being done by the inspector who clears the goods. 
In collecting the duty the customs officials shall include in it double the 
amount of the consular fee that would have been charged on the invoice. 

In the case of merchandise subject to a duty of more than 500 pesos 
according to the tariff, and not covered by a consular invoice, the inter- 
ested party is required to present an application for clearance, and shall 
pay, in addition to the import duties, the corresponding amount of addi- 
tional charges. 

Art. 224. By baggage is understood, for the purpose of exemption from 
duty, the following : 

I. Wearing apparel, provided it is not considered excessive by the col- 
lector, in view of the circumstances of the passengers. 



372 MEXICO. 

II. Articles which are worn for personal use, as jewels, watch, chain, 
buttons, cane, etc., one or two arms, with their accessories, and as many 
as a hundred cartridges, if the weapons are firearms. 

III. The indispensable or most essential instruments or tools for the 
exercise of a profession or trade, if the passengers are teachers, artists, 
or artisans. This exemption does not apply to pianos, organs, or hand- 
organs, or the material or accessories for the installation of laboratories, 
workshops, or collections. 

IV. One hundred cigars, 40 small boxes of cigarettes, and half a kilo- 
gram of snuff or chewing tobacco, if the passengers are adults. 

V. Used books. 

Customs Treatment of Samples. 

Art. 213. Samples intended to make known the merchandise which they 
represent may be imported under the privileges granted in the articles 
relating thereto in this law. 

Art. 214. There shall be admitted as samples, exempt from duty, 
remnants of cloth not exceeding 20 centimeters in length, though having 
the full width of the cloth ; and articles which are unsalable on account of 
their incomplete character. 

There shall also be admitted free of duty samples of wine, brandies, 
or liquors, when imported in receptacles of no greater capacity than 40 
centiliters, the weight of the liquid not exceeding 400 grams; provided 
that the net weight or the total volume of samples sent from a single 
shipper to a single consignee does not exceed 5 kilograms or 5 liters. 

Art. 215. Samples of complete articles, as manufactures of any material,, 
articles of cutlery or hardware, handkerchiefs, shawls, hose, shirts, etc., 
shall pay the corresponding duties, or shall be rendered unsalable by 
being clipped or perforated. 

Art. 217. Complete samples of merchandise which an importer desires 
to re-export later may be admitted without the payment of duty, provided 
the customs officials believe that they could be identified on leaving; in- 
such case the collector shall require a bond or the amount of the duty 
leviable on the merchandise, and shall issue a certificate to the importer, 
properly stamped, in which the articles imported shall be specified, with 
their tariff classifications and the data necessary for their identification ; 
the time allowed for re-exportation is also noted. They may be re- 
exported through any custom-house, where the interested party should 
present his samples and the certificate issued by the custom-house of 
entry. 

When the custom-house through which the samples are to be_ exported 
has examined the samples and their identification, with the aid of the 
certificate which accompanies them, it shall advise the custom-house 
through which the goods entered that re-exportation has been duly made, 
so that the bond executed may be duly canceled, or the amount of duty 
deposited may be returned. 

In the importation of samples the customs authorities may allow a 
period of six months for re-exportation. The term granted by the cus- 
toms officials may be extended to two years by the Bureau of Customs, 
at the request of the interested parties ; but in this case the bond required 
must be a cash deposit covering the amount of the duties. 

The customs authorities at the port of entry shall collect the bond or 
appropriate the deposit only if after fifteen days from the expiration of 
the period allowed for re-exportation they should receive no notice that 
the merchandise has been re-exported. 

In case of loss of the certificate referred to in the first part of this 
article, the custom-house of entry may, at the request of the importer. 



TARIFF. 



373 



issue a duplicate that shall serve for re-exportation the same purpose 
as the original. 

Commercial travelers who wish to cover various points situated in 
territory subject to fiscal inspection, taking with them, under bond, im- 
ported samples that are to be re-exported, shall protect these samples 
with the certificate issued by the custom-house at the port of entry, which 
in such case shall take the place of the document required by this law. 
The same document shall also serve to protect the samples in coastwise 
trade, in case the person who carries them takes passage on a foreign 
boat, to go from one port of the Republic to another. 



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374 



MKXICO. 



APPENDIX XII. 
DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR OFFICES. 



MEXICAN DIPLOMATIC 
CORPS ABROAD. 

Enibassw 
l')iitcd States, Washing-ton. 

Legations. 
Central America (1) Guatemala, 

for Guatemala and Salvador. 
(2) San Jose, for Costa Rica and 

Nicaragua. 
Tegucigalpa, for Honduras. 
South America (I) Rio dc laneiro, 

for Brazil, C'ruguay, .Vrgentnia, 

and Paraguay. 
(2) Santiago de Chile, for Chile, 

Bolivia, Peru and Colombia. 

Austria-Hungary, \"ici:ra. 
Belgium, Brussels. 
China, Pekin. 
Cuba, Habana. 
France, Paris. 
Germany, Berlir. 
Great Britain, Lcndon. 
Italy, Rome. 
Japan, Tokio. 
Norzvay, Chri'^Uriria. 
Portugal, Lisbon. 
Russia, St. Pr terf])ur3-. 
Spain, Madrid. 



FOREIGN DIPLOMATIC 
CORPS IN MEXICO. 

Embassy. 
I 'nitcd States. 

Legations. 
Argentina. 
Austria-Hungary. 
Belgium. 
Brazil. 
Chi)ia. 
Cuba. 
France. 
Germany. 
Great Britain. 
Guatemala. 
Italy. 
Japan. 
Nicaragua. 
Norzvay. 
Spain. 

Russia has generally maintained 
a Legation at the Mexican capital, 
but it is not at present active. 

Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Holland, 
Persia, Peru and Portugal have all 
accredited Ministers to Mexico, but 
no permanent Legations at the 
Mexican capital. Generally their 
Legations at Washington have 
charge of the Mexican mission, and 
at times their Ministers at the 
American capital visit A-Iexico and 
remain in residence there during 
some months of the year. 



CONSULAR OFFICERS. 



375 



Mexico maintains Consular Officers in many parts and countries of 
the world, and in Mexico are maintained Consular Officers from most 
of the foreign governments. 

MEXICAN CONSULAR OFFICERS ABROAD. 



Argentina. 

Buenos Aires, 

Cordoba, 

Rosario. 

Austria-Hungary. 

Brunn, 

Budapest, 

Fiume, 

Pozsony, 

Trieste, 

Vienna. 

Belgium. 

Antwerp, 

Bruges, 

Brussels. 

Charleroi, 

Ghent, 

Liege, 

Namur, 

Luxemburg. 

Bolivia. 

Cochabamba, 

La Paz, 

Oruro, 

Potosi, 

Santa Cruz, 

Sucre, 

Topiza. 

Brazil. 
Bahia, 
Para, 

Recife (Pernambuco), 
Rio de Janeiro, 
San Luis de Maranhao, 
Santos. 

Colombia. 

Barranquilla, 
Bogota, 
Buenaventura, 
Cartagena. 



Costa Rica. 
San Jose. 

Cuba. 

Cardenas, 

Cienfuegos, 

Gibara, 

Guantanamo, 

Havana, 

Manzanillo, 

Matanzas, 

Sagua la Grande, . 

Santiago de Cuba. 

Chile. 

Antofagasta, 

Caldera, 

Coquimbo, 

Coronel, 

Iquique, 

Santiago, 

Talcahuano, 

Tahal, 

Valdivia, 

Valparaiso. 

China. 
Canton, 
Foochow, 
Shanghai. 

Denmark. 

Copenhagen, 
Saint-Thomas. 

Dominican Republic. 
Santo Domingo. 



Ecuador. 



Guayaquil, 
Quito. 



Argel, 
Argelia, 



France. 



Bayonne, 

Bordeaux, 

Cherbourg, 

Cognac, 

Havre, 

Lyons, 

Nice, 

Paris, 

Saint Nazaire (Sur 

Loire), 
Vichy. 

Germany. 
Berlin, 
Bremen, 
Breslau, 
Chemnitz, 
Danzig, 
Dresden, 
Diisseldorf, 
Frankfurt-am-Main, 
Hamburg, 
Hanover, 
Leipzig, 
Mainz, 
Mannheim, 
Munich, 
Niirenberg, 
Stettin, 
Stuttgart. 

Great Britain and Pos- 
sessions. 

Adelaide (Australia), 

Auckland (New Zea- 
land), 

Barrow-in-Furness, 

Belfast, 

Belize (British Hondu- 
ras), 

Birmingham, 

Bridgetown (Barba- 
does), 

Bristol, 

Calcutta (India), 

Cardiff, 

Colombo (Ceylon), 



"^^d MEXICO. 

(Mexican Consular Officers Abroad (continued). 



Dover, 

Dublin. 

Falmouth, 

Gibraltar, 

Glasgow, 

Great Grimsby, 

Halifax (Canada), 

Hong-Kong. 

Kingston (Jamaica), 

Liverpool, 

London, 

Manchester. 

Maryport, 

Melbourne and Victoria 

(Australia), 
Montreal (Canada), 
Newcastle (New South 

Wales), 
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
Puerto Espafia (Trina- 

dad), 
Quebec (Canada), 
St. John (Canada), 
Southampton, 
Sidney (New South 

Wales), 
Toronto (Canada"), 
Vancouver (Canada), 
Winnipeg (Canada). 

Guatemala. 

Coban, 

Guatemala, 

Huehuetenango, 

La Libertad, 

Mazetenango and Re- 

talhuleu. 
Quezetalango and San 

Marcos. 

Haiti. 
Port-au-Prince. 

Honduras. 

Amapala, 
Puerto Cortes, 
Tegucigalpa. 



Italy. 



Bolonia, 
Brindisi, 
Caglieri, 
Cerdena, 



Catania, 

Florence, 

Genoa, 

Liorna, 

Messina, 

Milan, 

Naples, 

Palermo, 

Perugia, 

Rome, 

Turin, 

Venice. 

Japan. 

Yokohama. 

Monaco. 
Monaco. 

Netherlands. 

Amsterdam, 
Rotterdam. 

Nicaragua. 
Managua. 

Norway. 

Bergen, 

Christiania, 

Christiansand S, 

Christiansand N, 

Grimstad. 

Stavenger, 

Trondhjem. 

Panama. 
Colon, 
Panama. 

Paraguay. 
Asuncion. 

Peru. 

Callao, 

Lima, 

Mollendo. 

Portugal. 
Lisbon, 
Oporto, 

San Miguel (Azores), 
San Vicente (Cape 
Verde). 



Russia. 

Helsingfors (Finland), 
Libau (Curland), 
Moscow, 
Riga, 

St. Petersburg. 



Salvador. 
San Salvador. 



Spain. 

Algeciras, 

Alicante, 

Almeria, 

Barcelona, 

Bilbao, 

Cadiz, 

Cartagena, 

Cordoba, 

Coruna, 

Gijon, 

Granada, 

Jerez, 

Las Palmas (Canary 

Islands), 
Madrid, 
Mahon, 
Malaga, 

Palma (de Mallorca), 
Puerto de Santa Maria, 
Santa Cruz de la Palma 

(Canary Islands), 
Santa Cruz (Tenerife),. 
San Sebastian, 
Santander, 
Sevilla, 
Valencia, 
Valladolid, 
Vigo, 
Villagarcia de Aroza. 



Sweden. 



Gotenburg, 
Stockholm. 



Switzerland. 



Berne, 
Geneva, 
Lugano, 
Zurich. 



I 



MEXICAN CONSULAR OFFICERS. 
(Mexican Consular Officers Abroad (continued). 



377 



United States of North 


Kansas City 


Rio Grande City 


America and Posses- 


Laredo (Tex.), 


(Tex.), 


sions. 


Los Angeles, 


Rome (Tex.), 


Baltimore, 


Louisville, 


Sabine Pass (Tex.), 


Boston, 


Manila (Philippine 


San Antonio, 


Brownsville (Tex.), 


Islands), 


San Diego (California),. 


Calexico (California), 


Mobile, 


San Francisco, 


Chicago, 


Naco and Bisbee 


Seattle, 


Cincinnati, 


(Arizona), 


St. Louis, 


Clifton (Arizona), 


Newport News, 


San Juan (Porto Rico),. 


Del Rio (Tex.), 


Nogales (Arizona), 


Tacoma, 


Denver, 


Norfolk, 


Texas City (Tex.), 


Detroit, 


New Orleans, 


Tucson (Arizona), 


Douglas (Arizona), 


New York, 


Yuma (Arizona). 


Eagle Pass (Tex.), 


Pascagoula (Miss.), 


Also at Ancon, on the 


El Paso (Tex.), 


Pensacola (Fla.), 


Isthmus of Panama. 


Franklin (Ohio), 


Philadelphia, 




Galveston, 


Phoenix (Arizona), 


Venesuela. 


Honolulu (Havi^aiian 


Pittsburg, 


Caracas, 


Islands), 


Port Arthur (Tex), 


La Guayra, 


Indianapolis, 


Portland (Oregon), 


Puerto Cabello. 



378 



MEXICO. 



FOREIGN CONSLLAR OM'ICERS IN MEXICO. 
(Inchulini; Consuls CioiK-ral, Cunsiils and Consular Agents.) 



Argentina. 
IMexico City. 

Austria-Hungary. 
Merida and Progrcso 

(Yuc). 
Mexico City, 
IMonterrey (N. L.), 
Tampico (Tani.), 
Veracruz. 

Belgium. 

Campeche, 
Chihuahua, 
Guadalajara (Jal.), 
Guaymas (Son.), 
Merida (Yuc), 
Mexico Cit\, 
Monterrey' (N. L.), 
Puebla, 

:San Luis Potosi, 
Tampico (Tarn.), 
Tehuantepec (Oax.), 
Torreon (Coah.), 
Veracruz. 

Brazil. 

Mexico City, 
Veracruz. 

Bclii^ia. 

Acapuico (Gro.), 
Guadalajara (Jal.), 
Guaymas ( Son.), 
Mexico City, 
Monterrey (N. L.), 
Puebla, 

San Luis Potosi, 
Tampico (Tarn.). 

Chile. 

•Guadalajara (Jal.), 
Manzanillo (Col), 
Mazatlan (Sin.), 
Mexico City, 

:Salina Cruz (Oax.), 
Tampico (Tam.), 

'Veracruz. 



Colombia. 

Mazatlan (Sin.), 
Mexico City, 
Tampico (Tam.), 
Veracruz. 

Costa Rica. 

Coatzacoalcos, 
Frontera (Tab.), 
Matamoros (Tam.). 
Merida (Yuc), 
Mexico (Tity, 
Puerto Mexico (Vcr.), 
Tampico (Tam.), 
Veracruz. 

Ctiha. 

Coatzacoalcos. 

Puerto Mexico ( Ver. ) 
Frontera (Tab.), 
Matamoros (Tam.), 
Merida (Yuc), 
Mexico City, 
Tampico (Tam.), 
Veracruz. 

Denmark. 

Mexico City, 
Veracruz. 

Dominican Republic. 
Mexico City. 

Ecuador. 

Guaymas (Son.), 
Mazatlan (Sin.), 
Mexico City, 
Salina Cruz (Oax.), 
Tampico (Tam.), 
Veracruz. 

France. 

Aguascalientes, 
Campeche, 
Chihuahua, 
Durango, 
Guadalajara ( Jal.), 



Guaymas (Son.), 
Guanajuato, 
Hermosillo (Son.), 
Isla del Carmen (Cam.), 
Jicaltepec and San 

Rafael (Oax.), 
Mazatlan (Sin.), 
Merida (Yuc), 
Monterrey (N. L.), 
Morelia (Mich.), 
Oaxaca, 
Orizaba and Cordoba 

(Ver.), 
Pachuca (Hgo.), 
Progreso (Yuc), 
Puerto Mexico, 
Coatzacoalcos (\'cr. ). 
Salina Cruz (Oax.), 
San Juan Bautista 

(Tab.), 
San Luis Potosi, 
Tampico (Tam.), 
Tapachula (Chih. ). 
Tepic, 

Tuxpam (Ver.), 
Veracruz. 

Great Britain. 

Acapuico (Gro.), 

Carmen Isla de (Cam.), 

Chihuahua, 

Colima, 

Coatzacoalcos, 

Puerto Mexico (Ver.). 
Ensenada (B. Cfa. ). 
Frontera (Tab.), 
Guanajuato, 
Guaymas and Santa 

Rosalia (Son.), 
Guadalajara (Jal.), 
La Paz (B. Cfa.), 
Mazatlan (Sin.), 
Mexico City, 
Monterrey (N. L.), 
Progreso (Yuc), 
Puebla and Oaxaca, 
Salina Cruz (Oax.), 
Saltillo (Coah.), 
Soconusco and San 

Benito (Chis.), 



FOREIGN CONSULAR OFFICERS IN MEXICO. 
Foreign Consular Officers in Mexico (continued). 



379 



Tampico (Tarn.), 
Tuxpam (Ver.), 
Xcalak (Q. R.), 
Veracruz. 



Germany. 

In Carmen (Isla del) 

(Camp.), 
Chihuahua (Chi.), 
Ciudad Juarez (Chi.), 
Colima (Col.), 
Durango (Dgo.), 
Guadalajara (Jal.), 
Guanajuato 
Guaymas (Son.), 
Mazatlan (Sin.), 
Merida (Yuc), 
Mexico City, 
Monterrey (N. L.), 
Oaxaca, 
Puebla, 

Salina Cruz (Oax.), 
San Cristobal Las Ca- 

sas (Chis.), 
San Luis Potosi, 
Tampico (Tarn.), 
Tapachula (Chih.), 
Tepic, 

Torreon (Coah.), 
Veracruz. 



Guatemala. 

Comitan (Chis.), 
Guadalajara (Jal.), 
Hermosillo (Son.), 
Manzanillo (Col.), 
San Cristobal Las Ca- 

sas (Chis.), 
Tapachula (Chis.), 
Tuxtla Gutierrez 

(Chis.), 
Veracruz. 

Honduras. 

Guaymas (Son.), 
Manzanillo (Col.), 
Mazatlan (Sin.), 
Merida (Yuc), 
Pachuca (Hgo.), 
San Luis Potosi, 
Tapachula (Chis.), 
Veracruz. 



Italy. 

Acapulco (Gro.), 
Carmen, Isla del 

(Cam.), 
Chihuahua, 

Gomez Palacio (Dgo.), 
Guadalajara (Jal.), 
Guaymas (Son.), 
Mazatlan (Sin.), 
Merida (Yuc), 
Mexico City, 
Monterrey (N. L.), 
Salina Cruz (Oax.). 
San Luis Potosi, 
Tampico (Tarn.), 
Veracruz. 

Monaco. 
Mexico City. 

Netherlands. 

Merida (Yuc), 
Mexico City, 
Tampico (Tam.), 
Veracruz. 

Nicaragua. 
Mexico City. 

Norzvay. 

Campeche, 
Coatzacoalcos, 

Puerto Mexico (Ver.) 
Frontera (Tab.), 
Guaymas (Son.), 
Isla del Carmen 

(Cam.), 
Manzanillo (Col.), 
Mazatlan (Sin.), 
Mexico City, 
Progreso (Yuc), 
Salina Cruz (Oax.), 
Tampico (Tam.), 
Veracruz. 

Pana^na. 

Mexico City, 
Veracruz. 

Paraguay. 
Mexico City, 



Persia. 

Mexico City, 
Veracruz. 

Peru. 

Mazatlan (Sin.),. 
Merida (Yuc), 
Mexico City, 
Pachuca (Hgo.). 

Portugal. 

Mexico City, 

Oaxaca, 

San Luis Potosi, 

Veracruz. 

Russia. 

Isla del Carmen 

(Cam.), 
Mexico City, 
Monterrey (,N. L.),. 
Veracruz. 

Salzador. 

Colima and Manza- 

nillo, 
Mazatlan (Sin.), 
Mexico City, 
Salina Cruz (Oax.),. 

Spain. 

Aguascalientes, 
Carmen (Isla del) 

(Cam.), 
Celaya (Gto.), 
Chihuahua, 
Ciudad Victoria 

(Tam.), 
Coatzacoalcos, 

Puerto Mexico (Ver.), 
Cuernavaca (Mor.), 
Durango, 

Gomez Palacio (Dgo.). 
Guadalajara (Jal), 
Jalapa (Ver.), 
Matamoros (Tam.), 
Mazatlan (Sin.), 
Merida and Progreso 

(Yuc), 
Mexico City, 
Monterrey (N. L.), 
Morelia (Mich.), 



380 MEXICO. 

Foreign ("i insular Officers in Mexicn (cuiiti)iucd). 



Oaxaca, 

Puebla, 

San Luis Potosi, 

San Juan Bautista 

(Tab.), 
Tampico (Tarn.), 
Tapachula (Chis.), 
Tehuantepec (Oax.), 
Toluca (Max.), 
Torreon (Coah.), 
Veracruz. 

Szi'edoi. 

Isla del Carmen 

(Cam.), 
Guadalajara (Jal.), 
Merida and Progreso 

(Yuc.),_ 
Mexico City, 
Puerto Mexico, 

Coatzacoalcos (Ver.), 
Salina Cruz (Oax.), 
Tampico (Tarn.), 
A^eracruz. 



Switzerland. 
Mexico City. 



United States. 

Acapulco (Gro.), 

Aguascalientes, 

Alamos (Son.), 

P>oquillos (Coah.), 

Campeche, 

Cananca (Son.), 

Chihuahua, 

Ciudad Juarez (Chih.), 

Ciudad Porhrio Diaz 

(Coah.), 
Ciudad Victoria 

(Tarn.), 
Coatzacoalcos, 

Puerto Mexico (Ver.) 
Durango, 

Ensenada (B. Cfa.), 
Frontera (Tab.), 
Guadalajara (Jal.), 
Guanajuato, 
Guaymas (Son.), 
Hermosillo (Son.), 
Isla del Carmen 

(Cam.), 
Jalapa (Ver.), 
La Paz (B. Cfa.), 
Manzanillo (Col.), 
Matamoros (Tarn.), 
Mazatlan (Sin.V 



Mexico City. 

i^Iogales (Son.), 
Nuevo Laredo (Tarn.), 
Uaxaca, 

Parral (Chih.), 
Progreso (Yuc), 
Puebla, 

Salina Cruz (Oax.), 
Saltillo (Coah.), 
San Jose (B. Cfa.), 
San Luis Potosi, 
Sierra Mojada (Coah.), 
Tampico (Tam.), 
Tapachula (Chis.), 
Tlacotalpam (Ver.), 
Topolobampo (Sin.), 
Torreon (Coah.), 
Tuxpam (Ver.), 
Veracruz, 
Zacatecas. 

Urugjtay. 
Mexico City. 

Venezuela. 

Mexico City, 

Puebla, 

Veracruz. 



382 Mi:\i('(). 

APPENDIX XIII. 
W'kichts a\i) .Mkaslkes. 

The metric system is in official use in the Republic of Mexico, having 
been adopted by the Government in the year 1862. It is used to com- 
pute all customs and other duties to be paid to the General Government, 
in the measurement of public lands, and by the railroads in all freight 
and other transactions, and is exclusively taught in the public schools. 
The old-time weights and measures were founded on Spanish models, but, 
owing to the inexactness of the first standards and to subsequent changes, 
difTcr at present very widely from their originals. The value of the 
metric system here assigned to each denomination of the old weights 
and measures is that fixed by the Mexican Government at the time of the 
adoption of the metric system. These tables are from the first edition 
of the Handbook of Mexico, published by the Bureau of the American 
Republics in 1891. They are reproduced here because the nomenclature 
of the old system is still in use in publications on Mexico. By law of 
June 19, 1895, the metric system was declared the only legal system of 
weights and measures in the country, and became compulsory throughout 
the Republic on September 16, 1896. 

The equivalent of the unit in each system is here given. 

Length. 

1 inch =25.4001 millimeters. 1 niillimeter=:0.03937 inch. 

1 inch= 2.54001 centimeters. 1 centimeter^3.3937 inch. 

1 foot= 0.304801 meter. 1 meter =3.28083 feet (39.37 inches). 

1 yard= 0.914402 meter. 1 meter =1.093611 yards. 

1 mile= 1.60935 kilometers. 1 kilometer =0.62137 mile. 

Area. 

1 square inch =645.16 square millimeters. 

1 square millimeter=0.00155 square inch. 
1 square inch=: 6.452 square centimeters. 

1 square centimeter^).155 square inch. 
1 square foot = 0.0929 square meter. 

1 square meter =10.764 square feet. 
1 square yard=^ 0.8361 square meter. 

1 square meter ^1.196 square yard. 

1 square mile= 2.59 square kilometers. 

1 square kilometer =0.3861 square mile. 
1 acre =£).4047 hectares. 

1 square kilometer =100 hectares. 
1 hectare =2.471 acres. 

Volume. 

1 cubic inch :=16,387.2 cubic millimeters. 

1 cubic millimeter =€.0(XX)61 cubic inch. 
1 cubic inch ^16.3872 cubic centimeters. 

1 cubic centimeter;^0.061 cubic inch. 
1 cubic foot =0.02832 cubic meter. 

1 cubic meter =35.314 cubic feet. 

1 cubic yard =0.7646 cubic meter. 

1 cubic meter =1.3079 cubic vard. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



383 



1 quart 
1 gallon 



Capacities. 

=0.94636 liter. 

1 liter 
=3.78543 liters. 

1 liter 
=0.9081 liter. 

1 liter 



=1.05668 quart (liquid). 

=0.26417 gallon (liquid), 
1 quart " 

=0.9081 quart (dry). 

1 bushel =0.35239 hectoliter. 

1 hectoliter=2.83774 bushels (U. S.). 
1 U. S. bushel per acre^).87078 hectoliters per hectare. 
1 hectoliter per hectare=1.1484 U. S. bushels per acre. 



Mass. 

1 avoirdupois pound=:0.45359 kilogram. 

1 kilogram =2.20462 avoirdupois pound. 

1 troy pound =0.37324 kilogram. 

1 kilogram =2.67923 troy pounds. 

The equivalents of older Mexican (and Spanish) measurements appear 
in the tables below. 

Linear Measures. 

1 legua (league) =5,000 varas =4.19 kilometers=2.604375 miles 
1 vara (yard) = 3 pies =0.83800 meter =2.749578 feet 

1 pie (foot) =12 pulgadas=0.27933 meter =0.916526 foot 

1 pulgada (inch)=12 lineas =0.02328 meter =0.916526 inch 
1 hnea (Ime) =0.00194 meter =0.076377 inch. 

The vara is also divided (for dry-goods selling) into palmos or cuartas 
1 palmo or cuarta=0.209500 meter=0.687394 foot=8.248728 inches. 



Superficial or Square Measurf. 



1 square legua 
1 square vara 
1 square pie 
1 square palmo 



=1,755.61 hectares = 4,339.4 acres. 

=0.702244 square meter= 7.559000 square feet 

=0.078027 square m_eter= 0.839888 square foot 

=0.043890 square meter =68.030094 square inche'^ 



1 square pulgada=0.000o42 square meter = 0.84012 square inch. 



Land or agrarian measttres. 



Spanish name 


Nearest English equiv- 
alent 


Length 
(varas) 


Breadth 

(varas) 


Hectares 


Acres 






25,000 
5,000 
3,333^ 
1,200 
1,000 
1,104 
276 

50 


5,000 

5,000 

3,333J^ 

1,200 

1,000 

552 

184 

50 


8,778.0500000 21,697.000 

1,755.6100000 4,339.400 

780.2711111 1,928.133 

1011231360! 244.140 


Sitio de ganado mayor 








Fundo legal para pueblo . . . 


Legal town site 


Caballeria de tierra 

Fanega sembradura de maiz. 

Solar para casa, molino, 6 
\ venta. 


Knightholdof land 

Sowing ground tor 1 

fanega of corn. 
Site for a house, mill, 

or inn. 


42.7953111 
3 5662759 

.1765610 


105.751 
8.813 

.434 



384 



MEXICO. 



1 1 VliROMKTKlC AIkASURE. 

This was used for measuring aiul distributing water for irrigation and 
domestic uses : 

1 buey (ox) =48 stircus. 

1 surco (furrow) ^8 rcalcs or limoites. 

1 )iara)ija (orange) =2 dcdos. 

1 real (bit) or limon (lemon) =3 nciranjas. 

1 dcdo (finger) =9 pajas (straws) . 



According to the old ordinances of lands and waters established in 
Spanish times, the btiey of water was as much as would flow through 
an aperture 1 vara (0.838 meter) square, no head or pressure being 
mentioned. By a law of the Mexican Republic, of August 2, 1863, 1 surco 
was made equal to 6'/^ liters per second for rural measures, and the paja 
was made equal to 0.45 liters per minute for town measurements. This 
distinction was intended to make the surco a unit for irrigation, while the 
paja was made the unit for distributing water to houses, etc., in towns. 

Cubic Measures. 

Cubic meter. Cubic yard. 

1 cubic vara = 0.588480 = 0.769734 

1 cubic pic = 0.021795 = 0.769484 

1 cubic palmo = 0.009195 = 0.324634 

Dry Measures. 

Liters. Bushels. 

1 carga^l fanegas =181.629775 = 5.154357 

1 fanega=\2 almudes = 90.814888 ^ 2.577178 

\ ahmid=A cuartillos = 7.567907 = 0.859109 

Dry quarts. 
\ cuartiUo (quart) = 1.891977 = 1.718122 

Oil Measure. 

Liter. U. S. liquid quart. 

\ cuartcUo = 0.506162 =: 0.534870 

Wine Measure. 

Litre. U. S. Liquid Quart. 
\ cuartillo = 0.456264 = 0.482140 

Commercial Weights. 

U. S. Pounds 
Kilogrammes. avoirdupois. 

1 quintal=A arrobas = 46.024634 =101.444 

1 arroba=2S libras = 11.506159 = 25.361 

\ libra (pound)=16 o»ra.f = 0.460246 = 1.01444 

Ounces 
avoirdupois. 

1 on::a (ounce)=:16 adarmes = 0.028765 = ^-^l^^.^ 

\ adannc (dram)=36 granos = 0.001798 = 0.06343 

Grains. 
I grano (grain) -= 0-0000499 = 0.77160 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 385 

In commerce there was used the following relation between the kilo- 
gramme and the pound (libra) different from the ratio as fixed by Gov- 
ernment, viz. : 

1 kilogramme =2.1733 pounds (libras) . 

There is also a weight called carga, used in commerce, in freighting, 
and in mining: 

lcargo^\.2 arrohas=2QQ pounds. .. .=:138.073902 kilogramme s=304.332 
United States pounds avoirdupois. 

Precious Metal Weights. 

Ounces 
Kilogramme. avoirdupois. 

1 marco—% onzas =0.230123 =8.1184 

1 on^a=8 ochavas =0.028765 =1.0148 

1 ochav2i (eighth)=6 tomines =0.003596 =0.12685 

Grains. 

1 tomin=l2 granos =0.000599 =9.25920 

1 .grano =0.0000499 =0.77160 




PT?\, . J,-, .j 




386 MEXICO. 



APPENDIX XIV. 

PATENT AND TRADE-MARK LAWS.* 

The first patent law of Mexico was framed and issued in 1832, but it 
was not until 1886 that any remarkable activity was noted in this branch 
of development, as in the years intervening between 1832 and 1853 not 
a single patent was granted. From 1854 to 1875 the entire number issued 
was only 41; from 1876 to 1885 there were 360; 102 in 1886, and from 
that time until 1889 the patent grants numbered 406. 

The patent law of June 7, 1890, amended June 6, 1896, has been re- 
pealed by law of August 25, 1903, now in force. 

PATENT LAW. 

The new patent law of the Republic, promulgated August 25, 1903, 
contains 121 articles. The salient points of the law are the following : 

Anyone who has made any new invention of an industrial character 
may acquire the exclusive right, by virtue of the provisions of articles 
28 and 85 of the Constitution, to exploit or work said invention for 
his benefit, during a certain term, under the rules and conditions pre- 
scribed by law. In order to acquire this right it is necessary to obtain 
a patent of invention. 

The description of a patent, and what are or are not patentable, are 
about the same as in other countries of the world. The owner of a 
patent, and this may be one, two or more persons, shall have the ex- 
clusive right to work the same during the time fixed by law, which is a 
period of twenty years — divided into two terms, the first consisting of one 
year, for which the fee is 5 pesos, and the second of nineteen years, for 
which the fee is 35 pesos — and may be extended five years longer. 

Application for a patent must be made in due form, with specifications, 
a set of claims, a drawing or drawings, all in duplicate, the date of the 
application being the legal date of the patent. The legal date for a 
foreign patent is that of its original application. Exploitation is not 
oblig'ator}^, but after three years the Patent Office shall have the right 
to grant to third parties a license to exploit. Patents are issued by the 
Patent Office in the name of the President of the Republic, and are signed 
by the Secretary of (Pomento) Promotion. Notice is published in the 
Gaceta OUcial de Patentes y M areas (Official Gazette of Patents and 
Trade-Marks). Patents may be expropriated by the Federal Executive, 
on the ground of public utility. 

The regulations (38 articles) provide that the patentee or his authorized 
attorney must comply with specific forms as to description, claims and 
drawings; they require certain paper, ink, relative size, and character of 
models. These are not returned in any circumstances. 

TRADE-MARK LAW. 

Mexico became a party to the International Agreement respecting trade- 
marks, and the Decree on the subject was published in the Diario Oiicial 
(the official government publication) of September 13, 1909. By this 



*The full English texts of the Patent and Trade-Mark Laws and Reg- 
ulations were published in the Monthly Bulletin of the International 
Bureau of the American Republics (Pan American Union) for Decem- 
ber, 1903. 



PATENT AND TRADE-MARK LAWS. 387 

Decree, and the agreement implied in it, protection of trade-marks, of 
■citizens of the contracting States, is secured in the Republic by comply- 
ing with _ the _ regulations established by that international organization. 
Registration is made, and announcement of the fact is authorized in the 
publication issued by the International Office at Berne, Switzerland. 

Mexico joined the International Union for the Protection of Industrial 
Property on June 10, 1903. 

The Trade-Mark Law is divided into sections, the first giving the law 
itself, the second giving the rules of practice of that law. The date at 
which it went into effect is August 25, 1903. 

Section I has eight Chapters with 93 Articles. The substance of them 
is as follows : A mark is the characteristic designation used by a manu- 
facturer, agriculturist or merchant on the articles which he sells for the 
purpose of distinguishing them. For its exclusive use it must be reg- 
istered in the Patent and Trade-Mark Office (in the Department of 
Promotion (Fomento), Colonization and Industry), under specific rules 
concerning its description, the name of the owner, the object to which 
it is to be applied, with two copies of the application, an electrotype of 
the mark, and twelve copies of the mark in the form in which it is to 
l)e used. Restrictions are placed upon the character of a mark, and penal- 
ties are established for misleading or false statements about any mark. 

Commercial names and announcements are recognized as the exclusive 
property of the owner, and usurpation or imitation thereof may be prose- 
cuted, but the owner of such name is entitled to have it published in the 
Official Patent and Trade-Mark Gazette, and should do so in order to 
obtain the privileges conveyed by such act. 

Certain fees are established for the registration or renewal of the regis- 
tration of a mark (5 pesos), and also for the publication of a commercial 
name (1 peso) and the registration of a commercial announcement (2 
pesos for five years) ; these dues are paid in revenue stamps. Of course, 
patents and trade-marks issued before this newer law are protected, and 
rules are given whereby all such details are properly guarded. 

Section II has 27 Articles concerning the Rules of Practice of the 
Trade-Mark Law. They specify the method of making the application, 
the form of document required, that all petitions and documents must be 
typewritten, on paper of exact form and weight, and the character of 
-electrotype for a mark or commercial announcement. The fees for such 
procedures are likewise given. 

The registration of a mark must be renewed every twenty years. 



388 MEXICO. 

APPENDIX XV. 

Bibliography. 

Of the approximately 1,500 volumes indexed in the Columbus Memorial 
Library of the Pan .Vmerican Union, it is manifestly inadvisal)le to present 
more than a very limited list of books which are serviceable for practical 
consultation by the reader on the subject of Mexico. Previous editions 
of the Handbook have given reference to a really exhaustive number of 
works, but since the last edition (1904), so many publications, Ixilh official 
and unofficial, have appeared that to extend that list would make it alto- 
gether too cumbersome for the purpose intended by this bil^liography. 
It has been thought best, therefore, to mention here only a few books 
that will aid the student, and especially those that are available in most 
large libraries. 

History. 

Bancroft, Hubert Howe: History of Mexico (6 vols.), San Fran- 
cisco, 1883. The Native Races (5 vols.), San Francisco, 1886. 

Creelman, James : Diaz, Master of Mexico. D. Appleton Company, 
New York. 1911. 

Enock, C. Reginald : Mexico. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 
1909. 

Fortier, Alcee : History of North America (Volume 9 History of 
Mexico) and Central America. George Barrie and Sons, Philadel- 
phia, 1907. 

Godov, Jose F. : Porfirio Diaz. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 
1910. 

Humboldt, Alexander de : Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, 
etc. Longmans, Green, London, 1822, 1824. 

Prescott, William H. : History of the Conquest of Mexico. G. Bell 
& Sons, London and New York, 1901. 

Description and Travel. 

Brocklehurst, Thomas Unett: Mexico To-dav. J. Murrav, London, 
1883. 

Carson, W. E. : The Wonderland of the South, ]\Iexico. The Mac- 
millan Compau}', New York, 1909. 

Gadow, Hans: Through Southern Mexico. Charles Scribner's Sons, 
New York, 1908. 

Lumholtz, Carl: Unknown Mexico. Charles Scribner's Sons, New 
York, 1902. 

Lunimis, Charles F. : The Awakening of a Nation. Harper and 
Brother, New York, 1899. 

Martin, Percy F. : Mexico of the 20th Century. Edward .\rnold, 
London, 1907. 

North, Arthur Walbridge : The Mother of California, and Camp 
and Camino. (For Lower California.) Paul Elder & Company, 
San Francisco, 1908. 

Starr, Frederick: In Indian Mexico. Forbes & Co., Chicago, 1908. 

Stephens, John L. : Travel in Yucatan. (For Yucatan.) Harper 
& Brothers, New York. 1843. 

Trentini, Francisco : Florecimiento de Mexico (text in both Spanish 
and English), authorized by the Government of Mexico. De Boulgny 
and Schmidt, Sues., Mexico City, 1906. 

Ward, H. G. : Mexico. Henry Colburn, London, 1829. 

Wright, Marie Robinson : Picturesque Mexico. J. P. Lippincott, 
Philadelphia, 1897. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 389 



Guide Books. 

Terry's Mexico. Houghton, Mifflin Co., Boston, 1909. 

Campbell, Reau : Complete Guide to Mexico. Chicago, 1909. 

Janvier, Thomas : The Mexican Guide. Charles Scribner's Sons, 
New York. 

Baedeker, Karl : The United States, with Excursions to ]\le.xico. 
Karl Baedeker, Leipzig, 1909. 

Art Works. 

Baxter, Sylvester : Spanish Colonial Architecture in Mexico. J. B. 
Millet Compan}-, Boston. 

Lamborn, Robert H. : Mexican Painting and Painters (private edi- 
tion). Allen, Lane & Scott, Philadelphia. 

Commercial and Technical. 

Mexican Year Book, Annual. Authorized by the Mexican Govern- 
ment. (32 Broadway) New York. 

Statesman's Year-Book, Annual. Macmillan & Co., London. 

American Year Book, Annual. D. Appleton & Compan}^ New York. 

Wheless, Jacob: Compendium of the Laws of Mexico (Constitution, 
Codes, etc.). F. H. Thomas Law Book Company, St. Louis, 1910. 

Official Directory of Mines and Estates. John R. Southworth 
(Cinco de Mayo, 32), Mexico City, 1910. 

Romero, Matias : Coffee and India-Rubber in Mexico. Geographical 
and Statistical Notes on ^klexico. Mexico and the United States. 
G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1898. 

The annual publications of the Mexican Government can usually be 
obtained by writing direct to the Secretaria of the Departments, under 
which such publications are issued. The same statement applies to the 
publications of the United States Government, manj' of which have ref- 
erences to Mexico. Should any reader wish, the Pan American Union 
will be pleased to answer inquiries concerning sources of information 
for special topics regarding Mexico. 



INDEX 



Page. 

Abbreviations, postal, of States 333 

Aborigines: 

Architecture 34 

Ancient remains 23, 318 

Army organization 30 

Culture 27 

Customs 22 

Hieroglyphs 28 

Religion 31 

Sculpture 32 

Social organization 30 

-Academy, Naval 64 

Acaponeta mining district 312 

" river 310 

Acapuico, seaport 2S4 

" imports via 183 

-Acquiring of land 353 

Administration of Republic 56 

(See also under names of respec- 
tive departments. ) 

Administration of justice 58 

-Administrative jurisdiction 224 

" offices of States 224 

Agave, see Heneqvien. 

-Agrarian measures 375 

Agricultural bank 85 

" bureau 85 

" chambers 85 

" experimental station. . 85 

" products 80 

" resources 80 

statistics 89 

-Agriculture: 

Annual output 80 

Area fit for cultivation 80 

Area under cultivation 80 

Cattle 119, 121, 245 

Colonization 78, 352 

Exports of products 89 

Irrigation 85, 86 

Laborers, lack of 84 

Laborer companies 357 

Land law 352 

Methods 80 

Reason for neglecting 84 

(See also under names of re- 
spective products and under 
different States.) 

-Aguacate 20 

" cultivation of 113 

Aguascalientes, City 238 

Aguascalientes, State. 

Ancient remains 318 

Agriculture 238 

Area 238 

Boundary 238 

Capital 53, 239 

Climate ■. 238 

Division 239 

Mines and mining 143, 238 

Population 53, 238, 333 

Rivers _. .._ 238 

-Ahuacatlan,_ district 310 

" mining camp 312 

Ajonjoli 109 

Alabaster deposits 16 

Alameda park, Mexico City 230 

Alamos, mining district 288 

Albercas well 251 

-Alcabala tax 180 

Allende, mining district 253 

Alligators 21 

Alligator pear 113 

Altar, mining district 288 

Altata. seaport 286 

-Altitude of Republic 9,10 

-Altitudes of the capitals of the States 334 



Page. 

Amacusa river 268 

America, Central. 

(See Central America.) 
America,^ South. 

(See South America.) 
America, United States of. 

(See United States.) 
American-Hawaiian Steamship Com- 
pany 212 

American population 56 

Anahuac cordillera 14 

Analphabets 56 

Analysis of treasury statement 164 

Ancient remains 23 

list of 318 

(See also under different States.) 

Angangueo, mining district 266 

Animal kingdom 21 

Animals and animal products : 

Exports 187, 189 

Imports 182, 183 

Anona 20 

Ante-Columbian time of Mexico ... 23 

Antimony 137 

Antiquities 23 

" list of ancient remains in 

Mexico 318 

" in National Museum, Mex- 
ico City 236 

(See also under the different States.) 

Apiculture 21 

Apples 110 

Apricots 110 

-Approach of Republic by railroad.. 208 

'■ by seaports 209 

Aranzazu, mining district 305 

Arboriculture. 

(See under forests and timber.) 
Arboriculture, Central Board of . . . . 118 

Archeology 22, 34 

" list of ancient remains in 

Mexico 318 

Archil, Spanish moss 309 

Architecture, ancient 34, 318 

" list of ancient remains in 

Mexico 318 

Area: 

Superficial of Republic 7, 52 

Under cultivation SO 

Of Ststes 333 

(See also under respective States.) 

Argentiferous porphyries 14 

Argentina: 

Commerce with Mexico 178, 187 

Consular offices 378, 387 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Arispe. mining district 288 

Armadillo 21 

Armeria river 247 

Arms and explosives, imports. ... 182, 186 
Army organization of aborigines. ... 30 

Army of Republic 62 

Arroba, weight 383 

Arteaga 243 

_ " milling camp 243 

Articles prohibited in postal service. 219 

Artillery 63 

Arts of aborigines 32 

Art Museum. 

(See Mtiseum.) 
Art School of Fine Arts, Mexico 

City 234 

Art works bibliography 388 

Asienlos, mining camp 239 

Asphalt industry 137 

Asses, Census 121 

Athapascan language 314 



Page. 
Atlantic aiul Mexican Gulf Steam- 
ship Co 209 

Atlixco 278 

Atmospheric conditions 17 

Atoyac river 276 

Auriferous deposits 14 

Austria Hungary: 

Commerce with Mexico 178, 187 

Consular offices 375,378 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Axayacall 40 

Ayuntamiento. 

(See Municipality.) 

Azoguc 13S 

Aztec calendar 25 

" history 40 

" invasion 40 

" metropolis Tenochtitlan .... 228 

Bacis, mining district 249 

Baggage, tariff regulations 371 

Bahia del Espirito Santo 313 

Baliia de .\scension 313 

Baja California. 

(Sec Lower California.) 

Balsas river 12 

Bananas 20 

Cultivation 113 

Production 113 

Bank of London and Mexico, branches 366 

" of Mexico, branches 366 

" law 173 

" notes 172 

Banl<s 173 

" condition of 175 

" of emission 366 

" of encouragement 368 

" list of 366 

Barley 91 

Barrancas 16 

Batopilas, mining camp 243 

Bays, principal of Republic 10 

Beans 92 

Beavers 21 

Beer 152 

Bees 21 

Belgium t 

Commerce with Mexico 178,187 

Consular offices 375, 378 

Diplomatic representation 378 

Bertran barranca 16 

Beverages, liquors and wines, im- 
ports 182, 186 

Bibliography 388 

Birds 21 

Bismuth 137 

" deposits 16 

Bitter salt, deposits 16 

Bituminous coal fields 141 

Blankets, manufacture 150 

Board of health, organization 226 

Bocas de Conil 302 

Boers colony 78 

Bolanos mining camp 305 

Bolivia, Consular offices 375 

Bonds 160 

Boots. 

(See shoes.) 

Botany 20 

Boundaries of Republic 7 

" with British Honduras. . 9 

" with Guatemala 8 

" with^ United States 8 

" of States. 
(See their respective names.) 
Boundary treaty with United States 8 
Boundary treaty with Guatemala . . 8 
Boundary treaty with British Hon- 
duras 9 

Bovine cattle. 
(See cattle.) 

Brandy, manufacture 154 

Bravo del Norte river 243,293 



Pagt. 

Bravos, mining district 254 

Brazil : 

Consular offices 375, 378 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Breadth of Republic 7 

JSrcwerics 1 52 

British Honduras: 

Boundary treaty 9 

Commerce with Mexico 182 

(See also under Great Britain.) 
British India: 

Commerce with Mexico 178 

(See also under Great Britain.) 

British population 56 

(See also under Great Britain.) 

llron?.cs 125 

r.udQ:et 164 

Building, prehistoric 24 

Burlaps, manufacture 151 

Cabinet, organization 58 

Cabinet woods 117 

Cables, submarine 219' 

Cacachilas, mining district 309 

Cacao: 

Cultivation 108 

Imports 184 

Production 108 

Cadereita, mining camp 280' 

Caja de prestamos para obras de ir- 
rigacion y fomento de agri- 

cultura 85 

Calendar, prehistoric 25 

California Baja. 

(See Lower California.) 

Campeche, city 240- 

Campeche, State. 

Agriculture 240 

Ancient remains 318 

Area 239 

Boundary 239' 

Capital 53, 240 

Climate 240 

Division 240 

Language 240 

Population 53, 239 

Railroads 240 

Rivers 240 

Sugar production _. 103 

Canada, Commerce with Mexico.. 178, 187 
(See also under Great Britain.) 

Canadian line 211 

Canadian Mexican Pacific Line.... 212 
Canals: 

Tampico-Tuxpam Canal 294 

Cananea, mining district 132,290 

Candelario, river 240 

Candle factories 156 

Cane. 

(See sugar.) 

Canned fruits 113 

Canned vegetables 113 

Cafiital of the Republic. 
(See Mexico City.) 

Card telegram service 221 

Carmen, city 240 

Casas Grandes, river 243 

Casa Grandes, ruins 243' 

Cascalote 155 

Castilloa elastica. 
(See rubber.) 

Castor oil bean 109,114 

Cathedral, Mexico City 234 

Catholic church 76 

Catorce, mining camp 282 

Cattle: 

Breeding 245 

Census 121 

Exports 119 

Raising 119, 245 

Statistics 119 

Cavalry 65 



Page. 

Cazones river 276 

Ceboruc, volcano 310 

Cedar, timber 116,117 

Cement factories 156 

Cemeteries, Mexico City 238 

Census, first 44 

Census, statistics 52 

Central America, Diplomatic offices. 374 
(See also under names of respec- 
tive Republics.) 

Central plateau 16 

Central Railway, Mexican 199 

Central States, situation 54 

Cereals 80, 91 

Cereals, import duties reduced 80 

(See also under respective names.) 

Cerro de Apisco 17 

Cerro del Gigante 30/ 

Cerro del Mercado 16, 133 

Cerussite, mining 133 

Cessions of territory to United States 9 

Chalchihuites, mining camp 305 

Chalk 14 

Chapala lake 12, 260 

Chapapote 137 

Chapultepec 42, 230 

Charcas, mining district 282 

Charitable institutions 11 

Chemicals and pharmaceutical prod- 

^ ucts, imports 182,186 

Chiapanecan language 314 

•Chiapa river 242 

Chiapas sierras 14 

Chiapas, State : 

Ancient remains 318 

Agriculture 242 

Area 240, 333 

Boundary 240 

Capital S3, 242 

Climate 242 

T-anguage 242 

Mines and mining 143, 242 

Political division 242 

Population S3, 240, 2,iZ 

Rivers 242 

Sugar production 103 

Chichankanab lake 302 

Chichcn Itza, ruins 23,34,318 

Chichimecas 37 

Chicle: 

Cultivation 99 

Exports 98 

Chico, El, mining camp 257 

Chihuahua, city 244 

Chihuahua, State : 

Agriculture 243 

Ancient remains 318 

Area 243, 333 

Capital S3, 244 

CJlimate 243 

Ciudad Juarez 244 

Indian language 244 

Industries 244 

Mines and mining. ... 14, 130, 243, 244 

Political division 244 

Population S3, 243 

Parral 244 

Rivers 243 

Chihuahua and Pacific Railroad.... 206 
Chile: 

Consular offices 375, 378 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Chilpancingo 254 

China: 

Commerce with 179, 182 

Consular offices 375 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Chjnampas 113 

Chinatecan language 314 

Choaiian river 271 

Church and State, independent of 

each other 76 

Churches, Mexico City 234 



Page. 

Cigar factories 154 

Cigarette factories 154 

Cinnabar deposits 16 

Citatepetl 297 

Citizenship, Mexican 336 

Citlaltepetl cordillera 14 

Ciudad Juarez 244 

" " Imports via 183 

Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, imports via. . 183 

Ciudad Victoria 294 

Civil Code 224 

" register 224 

" status 224 

Classification of exports 187 

Classification of imports 182 

Climate 17 

(See also under respective States.) 

Coahuavana river 247 

Coahuila, city 246 

Coahuila, State: 

Agriculture 105, 245 

Ancient remains 318 

Area 244, 333 

Boundary 244 

Capital 53, 246 

Indian language 246 

Mines and mining 143, 245 

Political division 246 

Population 244, 333 

Railroads 245 

Coahuiltecan language 314 

Coal: 

Analyses 141 

Consumption 141 

Deposits 16, 139, 141, 246 

Exports 140 

Mining 140 

Coalcoman, mining district 266 

Coasts of Republic 7 

Coastwise steampship service 209 

Coatzaccalcos river 12,271,297 

Coatzacoalcos. 

(See also Puerto Mexico.) 

Cobalt 137 

Cochineal 21, 272 

Cocoanuts 20 

Codes in force in Federal States... 224 

Codices 28 

Coffee 92, 247, 310 

Cofre de Perote 17, 297 

Coinage 170 

Coined monej'-, introduction 170 

Coins 170 

Cold country. 

(See tierra fria.) 

Coleopter 22 

Colima, citj' 248 

" Cordillera 14 

'■■ peak 260 

" volcano 17 

" State : 

Agriculture 107, 247 

Ancient remains 318 

Area 246, 333 

P.oundary 246 

Capital 53, 248 

Climate 246 

Coffee 247 

Industries 247 

Mines and mining 143, 247 

Political division : 248 

Population 246, 333 

Railroads 247 

Rivers 247 

Sugar production 103 

College of Agriculture 84 

College of arts and trades 71 

College of mines 44 

Colombia: 

Consular offices 375, 378 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Colonists 7g 



I'agc. 

'Colonization 78, 354 

Land law 352 

Colorado river as boundary line.... 8 

Colunibus monument 230 

Commerce: 

Analy.sis 179 

Bibliography 388 

Customs 370 

Domestic trade 180 

Exports 178 

Foreign trade 180 

Historical sketch 179 

Imports 178 

(See also respective items.) 

Commercial code 224 

'Commercial college 71 

Communications, means of 191 

" Railroads 191 

" Steamship lines 209 

'Compania Mexicana de navigacion.. 209 

Naviera del Pacifico 212 

" Transatlantica 211 

Compostela coffee district 310 

Conchas river 293 

Concordia, mining camp 286 

Configuration of Republic 9 

Congress, first 46 

" organization 58.223,340 

Conquest by Spain 40 

Conservatory of music 71 

Constitution of the Republic 56 

Constitution, text of 336 

Construction material, imports 185 

Consular invoices 371 

" offices 378 

" _ representation 238 

Conversion of loan 162 

Copner deposits 16 

" exports 188 

" mining 132,246 

Coralillo wood 117 

Cordilleras 12 

(See also under respective names.) 

Cordoba city 301 

Cork tree 84 

Cork wood 117 

Corn 91 

Correctional institutions 17 

CorresDondence, handled by post 

offices 213 

Cortes, landing 40 

Cosala, mining camp 286 

Costa Rica: 

Consular offices 375, 378 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Cotton 94 

" cultivation at Coahuila. . . . 245 

" cultivation at Jalisco 260 

" factories 276 

" goods, imports 185 

" mills 146,278 

Courts, organization 60 

Coyotes 21 

Credit of nation 163 

Crimes, dealt by Judge of Peace.. 224 

Cuauhtemoc 40 

Cuauhtemoc, monument, Mexico City 230 

Cuauhtla, sulphur springs 270 

Ctiba : 

Cattle trade 120 

Consular offices 375, 378 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Steamship lines 211 

Cuban Steamship Company 211 

Cuernavaca, city 268, 270 

Cuitzco, lake 12 

Culiacan, city 288 

Culiacan, mining camp 286 

Cultivation. 

(See agriculture and respective 
products.) 

Culture of aborigines 27 

Currency and exchange 170 



Page. 

Customs: 

Duties 371 

Houses 1 87 

Revenues 164 

TarilT schedule 370 

Customs of aborigines 22,28,32 

Cuxcuchopa river 29;^ 

Damiana 114 

Dams on Boca Grande and Con- 
chas rivers 243 

Debt, public 1 59, 163 

Denmark : 

Consular offices 375, 378 

Departments, Executive 58 

(See also their respective names.) 

Deputies, Chamber of 56,340 

Description, general 7 

]5escription and travel, bibliography 386 

Distilleries 152 

Diplomatic and Consular offices.... 378 

" representation 238 

Distrito municipal. 

(See the respective States.) 

Distrito federal 225 

Division climatical 17 

" territorial 52, 223 

Dolores Hidalgo, town 253 

Domestic trade 180 

Dos Estrellas, mining camp 266 

Dominican Republic: 

Consular offices 375, 378 

Drainage of Mexico City 230 

Drugs, imports 186 

" from plants 114 

Dry season 18 

Durango, city 249 

Durango, State: 

Agriculture 248 

Ancient remains 318 

Area 248, 333 

Boundary 248 

Climate 248 

Indian language 249 

Industries 249 

Mines and mining 143,249 

Population 248, 333 

Political division 249 

Railroads 249 

Rivers 248 

Duties, customs 370 

" free articles 86, 370 

Dynamite, factory 156 

Eagle pass, coal basin 141 

Ecuador: 

Consular offices 375, 378 

Education 68 

(See also under schools.) 

Elevation 9 

Elder-Dempster Line 211 

Electric plant: 

Guadalajara 260 

Necaxa P'alls 276 

Electric trams, Mexico City 234 

Elevation of Republic 9 

Empire of Mexico 48 

Encouragement banks 368 

England. 

(See Great Britain.) 

Enseiiada, port 309 

Epsom salts 302 

Escalera peak 254 

Escoba fiber plant 107 

Escuela Nacional Preparatoria 74 

Esperanza coal basin 141 

Estope. 

(See Zapupe.) 

Ethnology 22 

Exchange and currency 170 



V 



Page. 

Executive departments 58 

(See also their respective names.) 

Executive power 345 

'■ organization 58 

Expenditures 164 

Explosives, factory 156 

Export duties 370 

Exports 178 

. " 1900-1910 181 

'■' by articles 187 

" by countries 187 

External debt 163 

Factories, development 145 

Falls: 

Guadalajara 260 

Juancatlan 260 

Fauna 21 

Federal district 53, 223 

Agriculture 225 

Area 225, 333 

Ayuntamiento 228 

Boundary 225 

Capital 53,226 

Climate 225 

Division 226 

Language 226 

Mines and mining 143, 226 

Municipality 226 

Popular representation 228 

Population 225, 333 

Railroads 226 

Rivers 225 

Federal Republic, presidents 329 

Ferrocarriles. 
(See railroads.) 

Fiber producing plants 105 

Fiber plants, exports 189 

Finances 159 

Budget^ 164 

Expenditures 164 

Loans 159 

Revenues 164 

Financial agency 160 

difficulties 160 

Fine arts, department of 71 

" school of 234 

Fiscal lands. 

(See lands public.) 
Fiscal revenues and expenditures. 
(See budget, expenditures and 
revenues.) 

Fi-tihes 21 

Flax 106 

Fleet 62 

Floating gardens ^113 

Flora 20 

Flour mills 90 

Fomento, department of 84 

Foreign consuls 375, 378 

debt 160 

" diplomatic representation, 

374, 378 

" hospitals 2i6 

" population 56 

trade _• • • • 180 

(See also under respective nation.) 
Foreigners, rights and obligations.. 339 

Forest lands 80 

" nurseries 118 

" resources 114 

Forestry : 

Central board of 118 

Service 118 

Forests 82 

" preservation 85 

Foundries 154 

France : 

Commerce with Mexico 178,187 

Consular offices 375, 378 



Page_ 
France (continued) : 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Immigration 78 

Steamship service 211 

War with Mexico 48 

Franchises for encouragement of in- 
dustries 86, 370' 

Free list: 

Agricultural and industrial appa- 
ratus 86, 370 

Freight, steamship service 213 

French war 48 

(See also under France.) 

Fresnillo, mining camp 305 

Frijoles 92 

Frontera port 292 

Frosts 18 

Fruits 20 

" culture 20,109 

Fuente coal basin 140 

Fuerte, mining camp 286 

Fuerte river 12 

Galeado timber 117 

Galena, mining 133' 

Game 21 

Garbanzos 92 

Gauge of railroads 198 

Gazeta de Mexico 42 

General description 7 

Geology 14 

Geographical situation 7 

Geographical sketch 7' 

Germany : 

Commerce with Mexico 178, 187 

Consular offices 375, 379 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Immigration 78 

Population 56 

Steamship lines 211, 212 

Goats: 

Census 121 

Raising 123 

Gold: 

Deposits, placers 130 

Exports 188 

Mining 130 

Production 1877-1910 142 

Production of leading countries of 

world 131 

Gold-copper mines 131 

Gold-silver deposits 130 

Gomoz river 250 

Government 56 

" division of powers 340 

Governors of federal districts. .224, 226 
Governing board of federal States. . 226 

Granadilla, timber 117" 

Grande, Rio 10 

Grande, Rio, as boundary 8 

Grape, culture 245 

Graphite 137 

Great Britain: 

Commerce with Mexico 178,187 

Consular offices 375, 378 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Population 56 

Steamship lines 211,212 

(See also Canada and British Hon- 
duras.) 

Grijalva river 12, 292 

Guadalajara Cascades 260 

" city _ 262 

" electric plant 260 

" mining district 282 

" open air sanitorium. . . . 18 

Guadelupe islands 307 

Guanacevi, mining district 249 

Guanajuato, mining district 253 

city 253 



vt 



I 'age. 
Cuanfijuato, State: 

Agriculture 252 

Ancient remains 318 

Area 249, 2Zi 

lioundary 249 

Indiai: language 253 

Industries 253 

Mines and mining 125,253 

Political division 253 

Railroads 253 

Rivers 250 

Stock raising 252 

C'luapage, wood 117 

Guatemala: 

Boundary treaty 8 

Commerce with Mexico 182 

Consular offices 376, 379 

Diplomatic representation 374 

tluava, cultivation 20, 113 

Guayule: 

Cultivation 99 

Exports 98 

Guaymas, seaport 290 

" imports via 183 

" valley 288 

Guerrero, sierras 14 

Guerrero. State: 

Agriculture 254 

Ancient remains 318 

Area 253, 333 

Boundary 253 

Capital 53, 254 

Climate 253 

Political division 254 

Population 253, 333 

Mines and mining 16, 254 

Rivers 254 

Sugar production 103 

Guide books, bibliography 387 

Gulf of Tehuantepec 272 

Gulf ports, imports via 183 

Gnlfs, names of principal 10 

Gulf States, situation 54 

Gunpowder, factory 156 

Gypsum, deposits 16 

Haiti: 

Consular offices 376 

Plambiirg American line 211 

TTariison line 211 

Hat, factories 156 

TIawaiian Steamship Co 211 

Health stations 18 

Health, Board of 226 

Plenequen 82. 104, 105, 303 

exports 1900-1910 104 

Hermosillo city 290 

" ' mining district 290 

Hevea. 

CSee rubber.) 

Hidalgo, mining district 254 

Hiflalgo, State: 

Agriculture 257 

Ancient remains 318 

Area 256, 333 

Boundary 256 

Capital 53, 257 

Climate 256 

Industiies 257 

Indian language 257 

Mines and mining 125,257 

Poviulation 256, 333 

Political division 257 

Railroads 257 

Rivers 256 

Plides and skins, exports 1900-1910. 119 

Tlieroglyphs 28 

Highways. 

(See communications of respective 
States.) 



I 'age. 

Historical sketch 36 

History 36 

" before conquest 36 

" conquest by Spaniards 40 

'• Government since independ- 
ence 329 

" Independent Mexico 48 

" Presidents of federal repub- 
lic 329 

" Presidents of centralized re- 
public 329 

" Presidents of dictatorshijis. 330 

" Spanish domination 40 

" Spanish war 44 

" Struggle for independence.. 44 

" Viceroyalties 328 

" Viceroyalties, biograpliical 

sketches 43, 44 

History, bibliography 386 

Hogs, census 121 

Hogs, raising 123 

Holland. 

(.See Netherlands.) 

Hondo river 313 

Honduras: 

Consular offices 376, 379 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Horses; 

C'ensus 121 

Raising 123 

Hospitals 77 

" Mexican City 236 

Hot country. 

(See tierra caliente.) 

Hotels, Mexico City 236 

Household goods of passengers, free 

of duty 371 

Huavan language 314 

liuehuetlappallan 37 

Huichapan 14 

Huisch wood 117 

Humidity 17 

Ilydi ography 10 

(See also under respective names 
of Slates.) 

Iguana 21 

Ilhuicamina 40 

Immigration 78 

" companies 357 

" encouragement 357 

law, text 354 

" rules for steamship lines.. 357 

Imports by articles 182 

" by countries 182 

1900-1910 181 

" via gulf ports 183 

" via northern frontier 183 

" via Pacific frontier 183 

duties 370 

Indc, mining district 249 

Independence war 44 

Indian corn 99 

Indian population 56 

Indians: 

A.s laboring population 145 

Tribes 22, 36, 314 

Indigenous plants 20 

Industries, encouragement by Gov- 
ernment 86, 370 

Industries, development 157 

" manufacturing, develop- 
ment 14? 

" possibilities 158 

" prehistoric 27 

(Sec also under different branch- 
es of industry and respective 
Stales.) 
Infantry 62 



Page. 

Inguaran, mining district 266 

Insane asylum 236 

Insects 21 

Institutions of credit and their or- 
ganization 173 

Instruction: 

Military 64 

Naval 64 

Public 68 

(See also under schools.) 

Interior debt 160 

Internal debt 160 

International Railroad Company, 

Mexican 201 

Interoceanic Railway 201 

Invoices, Consular 371 

Iron Mountain, Durango 133 

Iron ore deposits 133 

Iron works 154 

Irrigation, encouragement S5 

" privileges 86 

Isla del Carmen, mining district.... 309 

Islands of coasts, principal 10 

Isla de San Jose, mining district. . . 309 
Istle. 

(See Ixtle.) 
Italy: 

Commerce with Mexico 178, 187 

Consular offices 376, 379 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Immigration 78 

Itzli 14 

Ixtaccihuatl 14, 17 

Ixtlan, mining district 272 

Ixtle, cultivation 105 

Ixtle, exports 1900-1010 105 

Iztaccihuatl 263 

Jaguar 21 

Jala Valley 310 

Jalapa, city 301 

Jalap root 114 

Jalisco, State: 

Agriculture 260 

Ancient remains 318 

Area 257, 333 

Boundary 257 

Capital 53, 262 

Climate 257 

Indian language 262 

Mines and mining 262 

Political division 262 

Ponulation 257, 333 

Railroads 262 

Rivers 260 

Sugar cultivation 260 

Sugar production 103 

Japan: 

Com_merce with Mexico 179, 185 

Consular offices 376 

Diplouiatic representation 374 

Japanese Steamship Company 212 

Jefe politico, position 224 

Jicoco wood 117 

Jiniulco, copper mines 246 

Jorullo Cordillera 14 

Jorullo peak 264 

Juanacatlan, cascades 260 

Juarez, Benito 50 

Juchipila, mining camp 305 

river 305 

Judicial power, organization 58,347 

Judiciary, federal 224 

Judges of peace, position 224 

Jurisdiction 224 

Justice, administration of 58 

Jute . 106 

Jute mills 151 

Kansas City, Mexico and Orient 

Railway 206 



Page. 

Kilometrage of railroads 199 

Knitted goods, manufacture ISO 

Kosmos Line 212 

Laborer, Companies 357 

Laborers, lack of 84 

Lagartos river 302 

Lago (Lake). 

(See respective following name.) 
Laguna. 

(See respective following name.) 

Laguna district Coahuila 245 

_" madre 293 

Laja river 250 

Lake Xochimilco floating gardens.. 113 

Lakes, principal j2 

La Morita, seaport, imports, via.... 183 

Land concessions 353 

not to be alienated 353 

law, text 252 

Lands public, acquiring of 355 

Lands public, survey 87 

Language, linguistic families 314 

La Paz, city 399 

Laredo coal basin 141 

Laredo port, imports via 183 

Latitude of Republic 7 

Law s : 

Colonization 354 

Constitution 56, 336 

Custom tariff 370 

Land .'.'.'352, 353 

Mmmg 362 

Patent and trade-mark 386 

Tariff 370 

Lead deposits 15 

" exports 188 

"^ mining 132 

silver bearing 128 

Leather goods, imports 184 

" industry 154 

Lechugilla lOS 

Legal tender 172 

Legislative power, organization. .56, 341 

Legislature, organization 223 

Legua, measure 375 

Length of Republic '7 

Lerdo, city 249 

Lerma (Santiago) river — ■ 

10, 250, 260, 263, 310 

Leyland line 211 

Liberty bell of Mexico 234 

Libra, weight 376 

Libraries 7Q 

" Mexico City 236 

Library, National, Mexico City 234 

" of Sant Augustine 70 

Lignum vitae 117 

Lima orange, cultivation 110 

Linea, measure 375 

Linen mill 151 

Linguistic families 314 

Liquors, wines and beverages, im- 
ports 182, 186 

Livestock 119 

Census 121 

Lixiviation process to reduce ore... 128 

Loan banks 177 

Loan conversion of 162 

Loans 159 

Longitude of Republic 7 

Lower California, territor}': 

Ancient remains 318 

Area 307, 333 

Boundary 307 

Canital 53, 309 

Climate 309 

Coast line 307 

Hydrography 309 

Industries 309 



Page. 
Lower California, territory (con- 
tinued) : 

Language 309 

Mines and mining 143,309 

Political division 309 

Population 307, 333 

Ports 309 

Lumber. 

(Sec timber.) 

Maccaya wood 117 

Machines and apparatus, imports i82, 186 

^Magnetic iron ore, deposits 16 

Maguey. 

(See hencquen.) 

Mahogany, timber 116 

Mail, contractors 213 

Maiz 89 

Maize 89 

Malinchc 17 

Manie 20 

Mamey, cultivation 113 

Manao. cultivation 113 

Mandarin, cultivation 110 

Manganese deposits 137 

Mango 20 

Manufactured products 187, 189 

" exports 190 

Manufacturing industry 144 

(See also under respective names 
of industry.) 

Manicoiuio General 236 

Manzanillo, port 248 

Manzanillo, imports via 183 

Mapimi, mining district 249 

Marble deposits 16 

Maritime range 7 

Martens 21 

Masonry, ancient 34 

Matamoros, seaiiort 294 

Matches, manufacture 156 

Matehuala, mining camp 282 

Matlahueyatl 1/ 

Maya Indians 22, 33, 37 

Mayan language 314 

Mayran language 244 

Mazapil, mining camp SOS 

Mazatlan mining camp 286 

" seaport 286 

" seaport, imports via 183 

Means of communication 191 

Railroads 191 

Steamship lines 209 

Measures and weights, table of. . . . 374 

Meat packing industry 157 

Medicinal plants 114 

Membrillo 20 

Merida city 303 

Merino sheep 123 

Mescal 1S2 

Mecala river 12 

Metztitlan lake ' 257 

Mexaltitlan, lagoon 310 

Mexcala river 254 

Mexican aborigines 22 

" American Steamship Serv- 
ice 209 

" Central Railway 199 

'■ International Railroad Com- 
pany 201 

" Northern Railway 206 

■' Pacific Railway 198 

Railway 205 

" Southern Railway 205 

Mexicans, who are ,.... 336 

Mexico Nordwestern Railway Com- 
pany 206 

Mexico, official spelling of 7 

Mexico, origin of 7 

Mexico City: 

Alameda 230 



PaRe. 
Mexico City (continued): 

Area 228, 335 

Cathedral 42, 234 

Cemeteries 238 

Chapultepec 42, 230 

Churches 234 

Climate 19 

Columbus Monument 230 

('onsular offices 238,379 

Cuauhtemoc monument 230 

Klectric tram 234 

Historical sketch 228 

Hospitals 236 

Hotels 236 

Loan 162 

Monument of Charles IV 230 

Museums 234 

Museum 318 

National Library 234,236 

National Palace 234 

Newspapers 238 

Palace 234 

Pasco de la Reforma 228 

Population 228, 333 

Railroad stations 236 

Schools 236 

School of Fine Arts 234 

LTniversity 74, 236 

Water supply 234 

Mexico State: 

Agriculture 263 

Ancient remains 318 

Area 262. 333 

Boundary 262 

Capital 53, 264 

Climate 263 

Indian language 260 

Industries 263 

Mines and mining 143, 263 

Political division 264 

Population 262, 333 

Railroads 263 

Rivers 263 

Sugar production 103 

Mexitli 38 

Mezcala river 276 

Michoacan, State: 

Agriculture 266 

Ancient remains 319 

Area 264, 333 

Boundary 264 

Capital 53, 266 

Climate 264 

Indian language 266 

Industries 266 

Mines and mining 16, 143, 266 

Population 264, 333 

Political division 266 

Railroads 266 

Rivers 264 

Sugar production 264 

Mileage of Railroads 199 

Military Academy _. 64 

" Academy of aspirants 64 

" establishments 64 

" jurisprudence 64 

" zones 63 

Mills: 

Cotton 146,278 

Flour 90 

Pr.per 151 

Saw 118, 156 

Sugar 151 

Woolen ISO 

Minatitlan, petroleum industry 138 

Mineral de las Aguas, mining camp. 280 

" springs 251 

(See also under respective States.) 
Mineral springs Aguascalientes .... 238 

" waters 278 

" kingdom 14 



tx 



Page. 
Mines and Mining: 

College of Mines 44 

Extension of mining region 125 

Mineral exports 188 

" oils 138 

" output 142 

" products 187,189 

" resources 16 

" substances, imports ..182,183 

Mines, historical sketch 16 

Mines, estimated by Humboldt... 123 

Mining Code, Text 362 

Mining property, distribution 

among' States 143 

Patio process 128 

Properties, number of 143 

Reduction of ore process 128 

Taxes paid 143 

(See also under names of respec- 
tive minerals.) 

Ministry of War and Marine 63 

" of Public Instruction .... 71 

" of Promotion 84 

Mint, first 170 

Mints 170 

Missions, foreign 374 

Mitla ruins 274 

Mocorito, mining camp 286 

Mochititl barranca 16 

Moctezuma 40 

Moctezurna mining district 290 

Molasses, production 103 

Moles 21 

Molybdemum 137 

Monaco: 

Consular offices 379 

Monetary reform 172 

Monetary unit 170 

Money: 

Annual average of value 1901-1910 171 

Coinage 170 

Introduction of coined 170 

Number in circulation 172 

Orders 213 

Order service 218 

Order exchange, foreign 218 

Value 170 

Monkeys 21 

Monte de piedad 173 

Monterrey city 271 

Monterrey Tampico loan 160 

Montezuma river 12 

Monument of Charles IV, Mexico 

City . 230 

Monument of Columbus, Mexico 

City 230 

Monument of Cuauhtemoc, Mexico 

City 230 

Morelia City 266 

Morelos, Jose Maria y Pavon 46 

Morelos State: 

Agriculture 102, 268 

Ancient remains 319 

Area 268, 333 

Boundary 268 

Capital 53, 270 

Climate 268 

Indian language 268 

Mines and mining 143, 268 

Political division 270 

Population 268, 333 

Railroads 268 

Sugar production 102, 103 

Topographical conditions 268 

Mormon colony 78 

Morse instruments 221 

Mortgage banks 368 

Motecuhzoma 40 

Mother of pearl 309 

Mountain system 12 



Page.- 

Mulberry tree 109 

Mulberry tree, distribution by Gov- 
ernment 151 

Mulege, mining district 309 

Mules, census 121 

Mules, raising 123 

Municipal council, organization.... 224 

Municipal administration 227 

Municipality, organization 228 

Mural remains 32 

Museum, National, Mexico City 234, 236 

Museums, 76 

Music of aborigines 32 

Music, conservatory of 91 

Musical instruments, imports 186 

Nahuatl Indians 22 

Nahuatlan 33 

" Indians 28, 34 

National palace, Mexico City 234 

Railway Company of Mex- 
ico 200 

Railroad Company, pur- 
chase by Government.. 192 

Railways of Mexico 198 

Nauchampatepetl 17^ 297 

Nauhuatl language 315 

Naval Academy 64 

Navy ; ; 62 

Nazas river 244, 248 

Necaxa river and falls '276 

Netherlands: 

Consular offices 376, 379 

Nevado de Colima 17 

Nevado de Toluca 17 

New Spain 7,40 

Newspaper, first 42 

Newspapers, published in Mexico 

City 238 

Nicaragua: 

Consular offices 376, 379 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Nickel 137 

Nieves, river 305 

Nogales, seaport 290 

Nogales, imports via 183 

Northern Railway, Mexican 206 

" States, situation 54 

Northwestern Railroad Company.... 206 
Norway : 

Consular offices 376, 379 

Diplomatic offices 374 

Steamship line 211 

Norway-Mexico Gulf line 211 

Nuevo Leon, State: 

Agriculture 270 

Ancient remains 319 

Area 270, 333 

Boundary 270 

Capital 53,271 

Climate 270 

Industries 271 

Mines and mining 143, 270 

Political division 271 

Population 270, 333 

Railroads 271 

Ri\ ers 270 

Sugar production 103 

Topographical conditions 270 

Oajaca, ancient remains 319 

Oak limber 116,114 

Oaxaca, city 274 

Oaxaca, State: 

Agriculture 272 

Area 271, 333 

Boundary 271 

Capital 53,274 

Climate 271 

Cities 274 

Coastline 272 



Page.. 
Oaxaca, State (contimiccl) : 

Forests 272 

Indian language 274 

Industries 150.272 

Mines and mining 16, 130, 272 

Political division 274 

Population 271, 333 

Railroads 272 

Rivers 271 

Sugar production 103 

Oaxaca Valley 271 

Obsidian 1-^ 

Ocelot 21 

Ochre, red 135 

Ocotlan, mining district 272 

Octli 103 

(.See also iiulque.) 
Oil. 

(See petroleum.) 

Oleaginous plants 108 

Olive, cultivation 109 

Onyx marble 276 

Opals 280 

Oranges, cultivation 20, 110 

" exports to United States.. 112 

Orchard fruits HO 

Ore deposits 16 

Ore reduction of ore process 128 

Origin of the name Mexico 40 

Orizaba cordillera 14 

city 151,301 

peak 16,297 

Oro, El, mining district 249,263 

Otomian Indians 33 

Otomian language 316 

Otomies 37 

Pachuca city 257 

Pachuca, mining district 257 

Pacific Coast Steamship Company. . 212 
Mail Steamship Company... 212 

"■ ports, imports via 183 

" States, situation 54 

Packing plants 157 

Paint, factories 156 

Palo mario, timber 117 

Panama: 

Consular offices 376, 379 

Pan American Railway 205 

Pantepec river 276 

Panuco river 12, 282, 297 

I'apaopam, river 12, 271 

Papaya : • • 20 

Paper and its manufactures, mi- 

ports , 182,186 

Paper, manufacturing 151 

" mills 151 

" money 15" 

Paraguay: 

Consular offices 376, 379 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Partidos, State division 60 

Parcel post conventions 217 

Parral city -"J^ 

Parral mining district -44 

Parral and Durango Railway 207 

Paseo de la Reforma, Mexico City.. 228 
Passenger: 

P>aggage-tarifif regulations -5/ 1 

Regulations 35.S 

T*3sturcs 1 — I 

Patent and trade-mark law 386 

Pathological institute 7^ 

Patio process • • 1 "° 

Patzcuaro lake ,71 

P'aw^i shop, national 1/^ 

Payo Obispo, seaport 3 K5 

Peaches ^j; 

Peaks * r.q 

Peanuts ^y. 

Pearl oysters - 

fisheries 3uy 



Page. 

Pears 110 

Peat deposits 141 

Peninsula Yucatan 301 

Penitentiaries 77 

Peras, mining camp 272 

Periodicals. 

(.See newspapers.) 

Personal apparels, free of duty.... 371 
Peru : 

Consular offices 376, 379 

|)i|)lomatic representation 374 

Pesqucrias lake 293 

Petroleum 242 

" industry 137 

" production 139 

Vera Cruz 299 

Physical foundation 9 

Pie, measure 375 

Piedras Negras, coal fields 246 

Pig raising 123 

Piman language 315 

Pine timber 1 14, 1 16 

Pineapple 20 

" cultivation 113 

Pinon 108 

Pinos, mining camp 305 

Pisciculture 21 

Pita, fiber plant 107 

Platinum deposits 16 

Pomegranate 20 

Popocatepetl, volcano 14, 16, 263 

Population: 

Indian 56 

White 56 

Mexico City 228 

.States and capitals 52, 333 

(See also under respective States.) 

Porphyries, argentiferous 14 

Ports, imports via 183 

Portugal : 

Commerce with Mexico 182 

Consular offices 376, 379 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Post and Telegraph 213 

" articles prohibited in postal ser- 
vice 219 

" offices, number of 213 

" parcel post conventions 217 

" pieces carried 213 

" revenues 215 

Postal rates 216 

" regulations 217 

Postmaster General, direction 216 

T'ostoffice abbreviations of States. . . 333 

Potosi peak 270 

Postosi and Rio \'erde Railway. . . . 207 

Pottery, ancient 27 

" industry 268 

Powder, factory 156 

Powers, division of 340 

" of federations 62 

Precious stones 14 

President of Republic: 

Election 58 

Official residence 42, 230 

Term of office 58 

Presidents of federal Republic 329 

Prevailing geological formation.... 14 

Primary education 74 

Private schools 74 

Privileges for irrigation 86 

" to encourage industries 86, 370 

Progreso, city 303 

Progreso, imports via 183 

Pioliihited articles in postal service. 219 

Prohibition to export antiquities. . . . 370 

Promontorio, mining district 249 

Promotion, department of 84 

Protestant church 76 

Public debt 1 59, 163 



Page. 

Public instruction 68 

" instruction, department of . . 71 

" schools 74 

" works, department of 226 

Puebla; city 278 

Puebla, State: 

Agriculture 276 

Ancient remains 321 

Area 276, 333 

Boundary 276 

Capital 53, 278 

Climate 276 

Indian language 278 

Industries 276 

Mines and mining 143, 276 

Political division 278 

Topography 276 

Railroads 276 

Rivers 276 

Sugar production 103 

Pueblo Indians 31 

Puerto Angel 272, 274 

Menizo 274 

Mexico 301 

" Mexico, imports via 183 

Puerto. 

(See also under port.) 

Pulgada, measure 375 

Pulque 21, Z1 , 104 

(See also octli.) 

Puma 21 

Pumice 14 

Pyramid 34 

Queretaro. city 280 

Queretaro, State: 

Agriculture 95, 280 

Ancient remains 321 

Area 278, 333 

Boundary 278 

Capital 53, 280 

Climate 280 

Indian language 280 

Industries 280 

Mines and mining 143, 280 

Political division 280 

Population 278, 333 

Railroads 280 

Rivers 280 

Topography 278 

Quicksilver mining 135 

Quintal, weight 376 

Quintano Roo, territory: 

Agriculture 313 

Area 312, 333 

Boundary 312 

Climate 313 

Mines and mining 143. 313 

Political division 313 

Population 313, 333 

Ports 313 

Railroads 313 

Rivers 313 

Oniotepec, river 271 

Railroads : 

Chihuahua and Pacific Railroad... 206 

Companies,, names, mileage 199 

Development 191 

Gauge 198 

Historical sketch 191 

Interoceanic Railway 201 

Purchase by Government 192 

Kilometrage 199 

Kansas City, Mexico and Orient 

Railway 206 

Merger 195 

Mexican Central Railway 199 

" International Railroad 

Company 201 

" Northern' Railwav 206 



Page. 

Mexican Pacific Railroad 198 

Railway 205 

'■ Southern Railway 205 

" Northwestern Railroad 

Company 206 

Mileage 199 

National Railways of Mexico 196 

National Railway Company and 
Mexican Central Railway Com- 
pany merger 195 

National Railway Company 200 

Pan American Railway 205 

Parral and Durango Railway... 207 

Potosi and Rio Verde Railwaj'.... 207 

Projects 209 

Purchase by Government 192 

Rio Grande, Sierra Madre and 

Pacific Railway 206 

Shares 195 

Sierra Madre and Pacific Rail- 
road 206 

Sonora Railroad 207 

Southern Pacific Railroad of Mex- 
ico 207 

Stocks 196 

Subsidies 1 92 

Tehuantepec National Railwav.... 203 

loan 160 

Telegraph lines 219 

United Railways of Yucatsn 208 

Vera Cruz and Isthmus Railroad 

Company 204 

Vera Cruz Railway, Ltd 208 

Railways. 

(See Railroads.) 

Rainfall IS 

Rain season 110 

Raiz de Zacaton. 
(See Zacaton.) 

Ramos, mining camp 282 

Real del Monte, mining camp 257 

Receipts 164 

Red ochre 135 

Registry fee 217 

Regla cascade 257 

Religion : 

Historical sketch 31 

Catholic church 76 

Protestant church 76 

Of aboriginals 31 

Remains, ancient, List of 318 

Reptilia 19 

Revenue law, stamps 225 

Revenues 164 

Revillagigedo cordillera 14 

" salt deposits 246 

Rhyolite 135 

Rice 91 

Rico, imports 184 

Riccinus 108 

Rights and obligations of foreign- 
ers 339 

Rio Grande, Sierra Madre and Pa- 
cific Railroad 206 

Rio (river). 

(See respective following name.) 

Rivers, names of principal 10 

(See also under respective States.) 

Rosario mining camp 286 

Royal Mail Steam JPacket Company. 209 
Rubber : 

Cultivation 97 

Exports 98 

Trees 310 

Rural Guards (>(> 

Ruins, list of ancient remains 318 

" Casas Grandes 243 

Russia : 

Commerce with 182 



I 'age. 
Russia (contimicil) : 

Consular offices 376, 379 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Sabancuy, peninsula 240 

Sabinas coal basin 141 

Sabinas Hiltlago, mining district.... 270 

Sabinas Valley, coal field 246 

Sack, manufacture 15.1 

Sahuaripa, mining camp 290 

Salado river 270 

Salina Cruz, port 274,272 

Salina Cruz, imports via 183 

Salt, deposits 242 

" Steppe 16 

" Bitter 16 

" Rock 16 

Salta de Agua falls 282 

Salvador: 

Consular offices 376, 379 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Salvador Railway Company, Steam- 
ship service 212 

Samples, custom treatment 372 

San Antonio, mining district 309 

San Benito, port 242 

San Bias, port 312 

San Cristobal, city 243 

San Dinias. mining district 249 

Sandstone 16 

Sanganguey peak 310 

Sanitary inspection 226 

Sanitorium. open air 18 

San Ignacio, mining camp 286 

San Jose, mining camp 294 

San Juan Bautista, city 293 

San Juan de las Llamas, mining dis- 
trict ^ 276 

San Juan river 24S 

San Juan de Ulua river 10 

San Luis Postosi, State: 

Agriculture 282 

Ancient remains 321 

Area 280, 333 

Boundary 280 

Climate 282 

Mines and mining 143, 282 

Population 280, 333 

Railroads 282 

Rivers 282 

Sugar production 103 

Topography 282 

San Pedro, city 278 

San Pedro, mining camp 282 

San Pedro Cholula 278 

San Pedro river 310 

Santa Cruz, mining district 253 

Santa Eulalia, mining camp 243 

Santa Maria del Oro, mining camp. 312 
Santa Maria del Rio, mining camp. 282 

Santa Rosalia, port 309 

" '■ imports via 183 

'* " mining camp 309 

Santiago Ixcuiutla, mining district. 312 

Santiago river 248, 266 

Santo Cruz de Bravo, city 313 

Sapaluta, imports via 183 

Sapioris, mining district 249 

Sarapes industry 272, 305 

Sarsaparilla 114 

Sartenejas 302 

Sawmills 118, 156 

Schists 14 

School: 

Attendance 74 

Of Fine Arts, Mexico City 234 

Military 64 

Of telegraphy 221 

Schools, Mexico City 236 

Schools, number of 74 

Scorpions 19 



Page. 

Sculpture of aborigines 32 

Seals 21 

Seaports, names of 209 

(See also under respective names.) 

Securities 160 

Selenium 137 

Senate 58 

Sesame 109 

Seri Indians 22 

Serpents. 

(See snakes.) 
Sheep: 

Census 121 

Raising 123 

Shoe factories 155 

Sierra de la Giganta 12 

'■ Gorda, mining camp 253 

Madre 12 

" Madre mountains 288 

" Madre and Pacific Railroad.. 206 

!Mojada, lead-ore camp 246 

" Nevada, mountain range.... 263 

Silao, mineral springs 251 

Silk industry 150 

Silkworm . 21, 109, 150 

Silver deposits 16 

" exports 188 

" mineral 125 

" production 125 

production 1877-1910 142 

" production of leading coun- 
tries of world 131 

Sinaloa, mining camp 286 

Sinaloa, State: 

Agriculture 286 

Area 284, 333 

Ancient remains 321 

Boundary 284 

Capital 53,288 

Climate 284 

Indian language 288 

Irrigation 284 

Mines and mining. .9, 16, 130, 143, 286 

Political division 288 

Population 284, 333 

Railroads 286 

Seacoast 286 

Sugar production 103 

Topography 284 

Sinking fund 162 

Sisal. 

(See henequen.) 

Sisal, port 303 

Sketch, geographical 7 

Sketch, historical 26 

Skins and hides, exports 1900-1910. 119 

Sloth 21 

Snakes 19, 21 

Snowfall 18 

Snowline 17 

Soap factories 156 

Social organization of aborigines.... 30 

Soconusco, port 242 

Soconusco, imports via 183 

Sole leather production 155 

Somberete, mining camp 395 

Sonora Railroad 207 

Sonora, State: 

Agriculture 96, 288 

Ancient remains 321 

Area 288, 333 

Boundary 288 

Capital 53,290 

Climate 288 

Industries 290 

Indian language 290 

Mines and mining ....14,16,130,288 

Population 288, 333 

Ports 290 



Page. 

Sonora, State (continued) : 

Political division 290 

Railroads 290 

Rivers 288 

Sotioran Indians 28 

Sonoran branch of Nahuatlan tribe. 28 

Soto de la Marina river 293 

South America: 

Diplomatic representation 374 

(See also under names of respec- 
tive Republics.) 

Southern Pacific Railroad of Mex- 
ico 207 

Southern Railway, Mexican 20S 

Spain: 

Commerce with Mexico 178, 187 

Consular representation 376, 379 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Spanish domination in Mexico... 40 

Spanish war 56 

Steamship line 211 

]^o|iulation 56 

Spanish moss 309 

Spelling, official of Mexico 7 

Stamp revenues 169 

Stamp revenue law 225 

States: 

Postal abbreviation 333 

Division 53 

Area 333 

Population 33 

Of federation 348 

Government organization 60 

Political division 60 

Powers, declined to 62 

Situation , 53 

(See also under respective names.) 

Statistics: 

Agriculture 89 

Census 1 

Commerce 180 

Finances 333 

Mining 143 

Railroads 199 

Stock raising 119 

Steamship Companies: 

Rules for immigration 357 

Communications 209 

Lines . 209 

American-Hawaiian Steamship 

Company 211,212 

Atlantic and Mexican Gulf Steam- 
ship Company 209 

Canadian Mexican Pacific Line. . 212 
Compagnie Generale Transatlan- 

tique 211 

Compania Mexicana de navigacion 209 

Campatiia Naviera del Pacifico... 212 

Campania Transatlantica 211 

Cuban Steamship Company 211 

Elder-Dempster line 211 

Hamburg-American Line 211 

Harrison Line 211 

Kosmos Line 212 

Mexican-American Steamship ser- 
vice 209 

, New York and Cuba Mail Steam- 
ship Company 209 

Norway Mexico Gulf Line 211 

Pacific Coast Steamship Company 212 
> Pacific Mail Steamship Company. 212 
Royal Mail Steam Packet Com- 
pany 209 

Salvador Railway Company, Steam- 
ship service 212 

Toyo Kisen Kaisha 212 

Ward Line 209 

Wolfin Line 209 

Steel works 154 



Page. 

Steppe salt, deposits 16 

Stock raising 119 

(See also under respective branches.) 

Stones, precious 14 

Strawberries 110 

Streams. 

(See rivers.) 

Subsidies to railroads 192 

Suchiate river 242 

Suchiate river as boundary line.... 8 

Suchil river 248 

Sugar cane: 

Cultivation 102, 103, 268 

Crop 103 

Manufacture 152 

Mills 151 

Production by States 103 

Sulphur 14, 16 

.Sulphur springs 270 

Sultepec, mining distiict 263 

Summer climate 17 

Supreme Court of Justice 60 

Sweden : 

(Consular offices 376, 380 

Switzerland: 

Consular offices 376, 380 

Diplomatic representation 178 

Tabasco State: 

Agriculture 292 

Area 290, 333 

Boundary 290 

Capital 53, 292 

Climate 292 

Coastline 290 

Hydrography 292 

Mines and mining 143, 292 

Political division 292 

Population 290 

Railroads 292 

Rivers 292 

Sugar production 103 

Table of weights and measures.... 374 

Tacotalpa river 292 

ITamaulipas State: 

Agriculture 294 

Ancient remains 321 

Boundary 293 

Climate 293 

Coastline 293 

Colonization 294 

Industries 294 

Mines and mining 153, 294 

Political division 294 

Population 293, 333 

Ports 294 

Railroads 294 

Rivers 293 

Sug:ar Production 103 

Tampico, port 294 

" imports via 183 

" petroleum industry 138 

Tampico-Tuxpam Canal 294 

Tancitaro 17 

Tanneries 154 

Tanoan language 316 

Tantoyuca. 

(See Zapupe.) 

Tapachula, city 242, 243 

Tarascan Indians 33 

Tarascan language 316 

Tariff of customs 370 

Taviche, mining district 272 

Tax stamps 225 

Taxes 165 

" alcabala tax 180 

" on foreign commerce 169 

" paid on mining property 143 

Tea from orange leaves 112 

Tecali, mining district 276 



Pagf. 

Tcclmic, Bibliography 387 

Tegiiilla 152 

Tehuacan, city 278 

Tclinacan, mining camp 276 

Tchuantcpec uulf 272 

istlimus 98,203,204 

National Railway .... 203 

Railroad loan . '. . . 160 

" Rubber, lands suitable 

for 98 

Telegram: 

Card service 22 1 

Number transmitted 221 

Telegraph and cable lines 219 

Offices, number 221 

rates 221 

" receipts 221 

" school 221 

" service, interior 219 

" statistics 222 

Temascaltcpec 263 

Temperate country. 

(See tierra templada.) 

Temperature 17, 18 

Temples, ancient 35 

Tenoch 40 

Teno^htitlan 38, 228 

Teocalli, 228 

Tepancuapan lake 242 

Tepezela, mining camp 239 

Tepezintla. 

(See Zapupe.) 

Tepic, city 312 

Tepic, territory : 

Agi iculture 310 

Area 310, 333 

Boundary 310 

Climate 310 

Population 310, 333 

Rivers 310 

Sugar production 103 

Topography 310 

Tequesquiten lake 268 

Tequistlatecan language 316 

Terminos, laguna de 240 

Territorial division 60 

Territorial extension 7 

Territories, situation 54 

Territory, cessions to United States. 9 

Textile art, prehistoric 26 

Textile industries 147 

Textile and manufactures 182, 183 

Tezuitlan, mining district 276 

Tierra caliente 17 

Tierra fria 18 

Tierra templada 18 

Timber 114 

" exports 189,190 

Time marking by Indians 25 

Tin deposits 137 

Tiotepec pic ^54 

Tlacolula, mining district 272 

Tlacote|iec peak 254 

Tlalpnjahua, mining camp 266 

Tlatlaquitepec, mining district 276 

Tlaxcala city 151,296 

Tlaxcala, State: 

Agriculture 296 

Ancient remains 321 

Area 296, 333 

Boundary 296 

Capital 53,296 

Climate 296 

Indian language 296 

Mines and minerals 143,296 

Political division 296 

Population 296, 333 

Railroads 296 

Tlaxiaco, mining district 272 



Page. 
Tobacco : 

Cultivation 94, 272 

Exports 190 

I'actories 154, 297 

Products 154 

\'era Cru/ 297 

Toliman, mining camp 280 

Tollau 37 

Toltects 37 

Toltects 37 

Toluca (de Lcrdo) 264 

peak 263 

valley 263 

TonoLi city 242, 243 

Topographical conditions of Repub- 
lic 10 

(See also under respective States.) 

Topolobampo, seaport 286 

Torreon 246 

Tortilla 89 

Tortoise 21 

Totonacan Indians 33 

Totonacan language 316 

Toyo Kisen Kaisha 212 

Trade-mark law 386 

Trade 

(See Commerce.) 
Transportation problem of railroads 193 

Treaties, boundary 8 

Tree planting for sanitation 119 

Trees 114 

Tribes, list of 314 

Tuberculosis, health resorts 18 

Tula, river 12 

Tunal, river 248 

Turbio, river 250 

Turtles 21 

Tuxpam-Tampico Canal 294, 297 

I'uxpam, city 299 

Tuxpam, river 276 

Tuxtla Gutierrez (Chiapas) 242 

United Kingdom. 

(See Great Britain.) 

United Railways of Yucatan 208 

United States of America: 

American population in Mexico. . 56 

Boundary treaties 8 

Cession of territories 9 

Commerce with Mexico. .. 178, 183, 187 

Consular offices 377, 380 

Diplomatic representation 374 

Steamship lines 209 

Universidad de Mexico 74 

University 74 

University, Mexico City 236 

Ures, mining district 290 

Uruguay: 

Diplomatic representation ....374,380 

Usumacinta river 12, 242, 292 

Uxmal palace 34 

Vallecillo, mining district 270 

Valley of Mexico lakes 12 

Valleys 16 

Valuation of articles subject to duty 370 

Value of money 170 

Vanadinite 137 

Vanadium 137 

Vanillf. 101 

Vara, measure 375 

Vegetable kingdom 20 

Vegetables, cultivation 113 

" products, exports ...187,189 

Vegetation 82 

Vehicles and cars, imports 182,186 

Velardena, mining district 249 

Venezuela : 

Consular offices 377, 380 

Vera Cruz, city 299,301 

Imports via 183 



Page. 
Vera Cruz, city (continued) : 

Tree planting 119 

and Isthmus Railroad Company.. 204 

Railway, Ltd 208 

Vera Cruz, State : 

Agriculture 106, 113,i297 

Area 296, 333 

Ancient remains 321 

Boundary 296 

Capital 299,301 

Climate 297 

Hydrography 297 

Industries 151, 299 

Mines and mining 143, 299 

Petroleum 138,299 

Political division 301 

Population 296, 333 

Ports 299 

Railroads 208,301 

Rivers 297 

Steamship lines 211 

Sugar production 103 

Veta Grande 265 

Viceroys, Spanish • 40 

Viceroyalties, names and biographi- 
cal sketches 327 

Victoria, mining district 294_ 

Villadama, mining camp 270" 

Virgines, mining district 309 

Viticulture 109 

Volcanoes 16 

(See also their respective names.) 

War with France 48 

War with Spain 41 

War and Marine, Ministry 63 

Ward Line 209 

Water courses. See rivers. 

" for irrigation, privileges.... 86 

'' power 26 

" rights 86 

" supply, Mexico City 234 

" system 10 

Weight and measures, table 374 

Western Union Company 222 

Whales 21 

White population 56 

Wheat 90 

Wine, cultivation 109, 245 

Wine, liquors and beverages, im- 
ports 182, 186 

Wine, manufacture 154 

Wine, production 109 

Winter climate 17 

V/inter resorts 18 

Wolves 21 

Wolvin line 209 

Wood for building, imports 184 

Woods 82, 114 



Page. 

Woolen goods, manufacture 150 

Woolen mills 150 

Xalapa. 

(See Jalapa.) 

Xcalak, artificial harbor 313 

Xinantecatl 17 

Xochimilco, Lake, floating gardens. 113 

Yaqui, mining district 312 

Yaqui, river 12 

Yturbide, Augustin de 46 

Yucatan, United Railways of 208 

Yucatan, State : 

Agriculture 303 

Ancient Remains 325 

Area, 301, 333 

Antiquities 303, 325 

Boundary 301 

Capital S3, 303 

Climate 303 

Henequen cultivation 105 

Hydrography 302 

Indian language 303 

Industries 303 

Political division 303 

Population 301, 333 

Railroads 303 

Sugar production 103 

Yuman language 316 

Yuririapundaro, lake 251 

Zacatecas, city 307 

Zacatecas, mining camp 305 

Zacatecas, State: 

Area 305, 333 

Ancient remains 325, 307 

Antiquities 307, 325 

Boundary 305 

Climate 305 

Industries 305 

Language 305 

Mines and mining 125,130,305 

Political division 307 

Population 305, 333 

Railroads 305 

Zacaton 107 

Zacualptan, mining camp 263 

Zcmora. city 266 

Zapaluta, city 243 

Zapote 20. ri3 

Zapotecan Indians 33 

" language 316 

Zapote mamey timber 117 

Zapotillo timber 117 

Zapupe 106, 299 

Zimapan, mining camp 257 

Zinc, mining 135 

Zoology 21 

Zoquean Indians 33 

Zoquean language 317 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



Paxe. 
Act at liulc-pciulcnco, facsimile of . . 47 
Antiquities: 

Chichen Itza ruins 35,326 

Mitla ruins ' 322 

Pyramids of the Sun, Teotihuacan 320 

L \mal, ruins of 33,323,324 

Atlixco, cotton mill ' 149 

■'La Aurora" sugar factory, Culiacan 102 

Aztec Calendar Stone 25 

Aztec Emperor Cuauhtemoc monu- 
ment 39 

Banana and cotTee plantation, Cor- 

„ doba 93 

Banco de Hidalgo, Pachua 177 

Brewery, Toluca and IMexican brew - 

Bridges: 

Railway Bridge in Guerrero State 255 

Calendar stone, Aztec 25 

Calle del teatro, Mexico City 59 

Cancer, crossing the tropic of 19 

Casino de la Laguna, Torreon 245 

Cathedral, Mexico City 232 

■' Mexico City, Illumination 

of 233 

" Morelia 267 

Pueblo, Choir of 277 

Cerro del Mercado 134 

Chapala, Lake 258 

Chapuhepec castle, Mexico City.... 55 

Chichen Itza ruins 35,326 

Chiclero at work 100 

Chihuahua, mineral bank 174 

Church of Chiapa de Corzo 241 

Church of Sto. Domingo, Oaxaca. . 273 
Churclics, English, church and school, 

Pachuca 77 

Church, Parish church at Dolores.. 252 
"Claussen" Drive (Paseo) along the 

coast of Mazatlan 11 

Coffee and Banana plantation 93 

Coffee estate, farmhouse 83 

Colegio de la Paz, Mexico City.... 57 
"Coliseo Nuevo" street, Mexico City 227 

Colonia Juarez, Mexico City 167 

Confluence of Grijalva and Usu- 

macinta rivers 291 

Cotton mills, Atlixco 149 

Cotton tree, Tonala 116 

Country Club, Mexico City Ill 

Crossing the tropic of cancer 19 

Cuauhtemoc monument, Mexico City 39 

Cnernavaca, Palace of Cortes 269 

Custom House, Nogales 289 

Degollado theatre, Guadalajara 259 

Diagrams: 

Area of Mexico compared with 

part of United States 52 

Cattle exports 119 

Chicle exports 98 

Coffee exports 92 

Commerce 178 

Commerce for 10 years 181 

Copper exports 188 

Decades, Production of Gold and 

Silver 124 

Exports 178 

Expenditure and revenue 165 

Garbanzo exports 92 

Gold exports 188 

Gold production 124 

Gold production of leading coun- 
tries 131 

Guaj'ule exports 98 

Henequen exports 104 

ILides and skins exports 119 



Page 
Diagrams (continued) : 

I'liports 178 

Ixtle exi)orts lOS 

i^ead exports 188 

Mineral exports 188 

Rubber exports 98 

Silver exports 188 

Silver production of leading coun- 
tries 131 

Skins and hides exports 119 

Value of Mexican peso 171 

Drawbridge, Salina Cruz 204 

English church and school, Pachuca 77 
Facsimile of the act of independence 47 

Falls of Juanacatlan 13 

Farmhouse in a coffee and sugar es- 
tate 83 

Farmhouse, Te.xcoco 81 

Federal palace, San Luis Potosi. . . . 283 

Federal palace, Queretaro 279 

Fiscal pier, Veracruz 210 

Foundry "El Zopilote," Tepic 311 

Fuerte, Plaza de la Constitucion. . . 285 
Geological Institute, Mexico City.. 361 
Government palace at Aguascalientes 239 

Government palace at Colima 247 

Grijalva river, confluence with Usu- 

macinta river 291 

Guadalajara, Degollado theatre.... 259 
Guadalajara, San Francisco street. . 261 
Guanajuato, La Constancia street. . 250 
Hacienda (farmhouse), Texcoco. . . . 81 
liidalgo, house of, in Dolores Hi- 
dalgo . 45 

Hidalgo, Miguel y Costilla, portrait. 

Frontispiece 
Historic moment in the history of 

Republic of Mexico 351 

House of Hidalgo 45 

Independence monument, Mexico 

City 335 

Iron Mountain near Durango 134 

Juanacatlan, falls of 13 

Juarez, Benito, house in which he 

was born 49 

Juarez, Benito, portrait 51 

Laboratory in the National Medical 

Institute, Mexico City 356 

Lady of Tehuantepec 202 

Lake Chapala 258 

Landing pier, Veracruz 298 

La Paz Theatre, San Luis Potosi.. 281 

La Plaza Pier 308 

Library, National, Mexico City... 69, 75 

Loreto Smelting plant 126, 127 

Mahogany logs US 

JVlazatlan, "Claussen" Drive (Paseo) 11 
Mazatlan, waterfront of the port... 287 

Mercantile bank, Monterrey 176 

Meteorological observatory, Zaca- 

tecas 304 

Mexico City: 

Calle del Teatro 59 

Cathedral 232,233 

Chapultepec castle 55 

Colegio de la Paz 57 

Coliseo Nuevo street 227 

Colonia Juarez 167 

Country Club HI 

Geological Institute 361 

Independence monument 335 

Laboratory in the National Medi- 
cal Institute 356 

Library National 69, 75 

Militarv College 65 



xvtt 



Page. 
Mexico City (continued) : 

Modern residence 237 

Mutual Life Insurance Co., office 

building 161 

National Military Training School 79 

National Preparatory School 73 

National Railways, Main office 

building 197 

Plaza Dinamarca 61 

Plaza de Guardiola 231 

Post Office 214,215 

.San Francisco Avenue 223 

Sixteenth of September Avenue.. 229 

Spanish Club 235 

Statue to the last Aztec Emperor, 

Cuauhtemoc 39 

Military College, Chapultepec 65 

Military Industrial School, San Luis 

Potosi 72 

Military Training School, Mexico 

City 79 

Mineral bank of Chihuahua 174 

Mitla ruins 322 

Modern residence, Mexico City. . . . 237 

Monterrey, Mercantile bank 176 

Morelia, Cathedral 267 

Morelia Palace of Justice 265 

Municipal Arcade, Puebla 275 

Municipal Building, Progreso 302 

Mutual Life Insurance Company, 

office building, Mexico City. . . . 161 
National Railways of Mexico, main 

office building, Mexico City. . . . 197 

Nogales, Custom house 289 

Oaxaca, Church of Sto. Domingo. . 273 
Observatory, meteorological, Zaca- 

tecas 304 

Pachuca, Banco de Hidalgo '. . . 177 

Pachuca, bird's eye view 256 

Pachuca English church and school. . 77 

Palace of Cortes, Cuernavaca 269 

Palace of Justice, Morelia 265 

Patio and fountain in ex-convent of 

San Augustin 381 

"Patio Process" in mining 129 

Pier at La Paz 308 

Pineapple, cultivation 112 

Plaza de la Constitucion, Fuerte... 285 

Plaza Dinamarca, Mexico City 61 

Plaza de Guardiola, Mexico City. . 231 

^'Pochoto" or cotton tree 116 

Pochoto tree, Tonola 116 

Popocatepetl IS 

"Porfirio Diaz" tunnel 251 

Port of Mazatlan, waterfront 287 

Post and Telegraph office building, 

Veracruz 220 

Post Office, Mexico City 214,215 

Preparatory School, National, Mexi- 
co City 73 



Page. 

Progreso, Municipal Building 302 

Puebla, Choir in the Cathedral 277 

Puebla, Municipal Arcade 275 

Pulpit of the Church of San Fran- 
cisco, Tlaxcala 43 

Pyramid of the Sun 320 

Queretaro, federal palace 279 

Railway bridge in Guerrero State.. 255 

"Rio Blanco," textile factory 147 

Rubber, wild tree 20 

Rubber, six months old rubber plants 97 

Ruins of Chichen Itza 35, 326 

Ruins of Uxmal 33,323,324 

Rurales 67 

Sacrificial stone 29 

Salina Cruz, drawbridge 204 

Saltillo, Normal School 71 

San Augustin, Patio and fountain 

of the ex-convent 381 

San Francisco Avenue, Mexico City 223 

San Francisco pulpit, Tlaxcala 43 

San Gabriel Sugar estate, Morelos 

State 88 

San Juan de Uloa fort, Veracruz.. 41 
San Luis Potosi, "La Paz" theater. . 281 
San Luis Potosi, federal palace.... 283 
San Luif. Potosi, Military Industrial 

School 72 

San Raphael Mining Works, Pachuca 122 
School, Normal, in City of Saltillo. 71 

Shepherd, a Mexican 122 

Silver production 124 

Sixteenth of September Avenue, 

Mexico City 229 

Spanish Club, Mexico City 235 

Sugar, "La Aurora" sugar factory, 

Culiacan 102 

Sugai estate, farmhouse 83 

Sugar, "San Gabriel" sugar estate, 

Morelos State 88 

Tampico, Panorama of the port.... 295 

Tehuantepec, lady of 202 

Teotihuacan, p3'ramid of the Sun.. 320 

Textile factory, "Rio Blanco" 147 

Tobacco plantation near Cordoba. . . 94 

"Toluca y Mexico" Breweries 153 

Tonala, "Pochoto," or cotton tree. . 116 

Tropic of cancer, crossing 19 

Usumacinta river, confluence with 

Griialva river 291 

Veracruz: 

Federal post and telegraph office 

building 220 

Fiscal pier 210 

Fort of "San Juan de Uloa" 41 

Independencia Avenue 300 

Landing pier 298 

Zacatecas, bird's eye view 306 

Zacatecas Meteorological Observatory 304 

Zapupe plant 106 

"El Zopilote" foundry, Tepic 311 










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